Anthony B. Miller, L. Lloyd Morgan, Iris Udasin and Devra Lee Davis. “Cancer Epidemiology Update, following the 2011 IARC Evaluation of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (Monograph 102)”  Environmental Research, September 6, 2018.

• Increased risk of brain, vestibular nerve and salivary gland tumors are associated with mobile phone use. 
• Literature review: Based on the evidence reviewed it is our opinion that IARC’s current categorization of RFR as a possible human carcinogen (Group 2B) should be upgraded to Carcinogenic to Humans (Group 1).

Hardell, Lennart and Michael Carlberg. “Use of Wireless Phones and Evidence for Increased Risk of Brain Tumors.” BioInitiative Working Group, Section 11 (2017).

• “Since the IARC evaluation in 2011 more studies have been published that support a causal association between RF radiation and brain and head tumors. In the following an updated summary is given of case-control studies on brain and head tumors; glioma, meningioma and acoustic neuroma. “

Varghese, Rini, et al. “Rats exposed to 2.45 GHz of non-ionizing radiation exhibit behavioral changes with increased brain expression of apoptotic caspase 3.” Pathophysiology (2017).

• The exposure to non-ionizing radiation of 2.45 GHz caused detrimental changes in rat brain leading to learning and memory decline and expression of anxiety behavior.
• The exposure to radiation induced oxidative stress and fall in brain antioxidants.
• The exposure triggered the gene expression of caspase 3.

Shahin, Saba, et al. “2.45 GHz Microwave radiation impairs hippocampal learning and spatial memory: Involvement of local stress mechanism induced suppression of iGluR/ERK/CREB signaling.” Toxicological Sciences (2017).

This study elucidates the effect of short (15 days) and long-term (30 and 60 days) low level 2.45 GHz MW radiation induced local stress on the hippocampal spatial memory formation pathway in adult male mice. Researchers observed that 2.45 GHz MW irradiated mice showed slow learning and significantly increased number of working and reference memory errors in RAM task. Further, 2.45 GHz MW radiation exposure increases serum corticosterone level and the expression of CRH, CRH-R1 and i-NOS, while the expression of iGluRs, n-NOS, PSD-95, PKCε, PKA, ERK-p-ERK, CREB and p-CREB decreases in above mentioned hippocampal subregions in a duration dependent manner. “Our findings led us to conclude that 2.45 GHz MW radiation exposure induced local stress suppresses signaling mechanism(s) of hippocampal memory formation.”

Deniz, Omur Gulsum, et al. “Effects of short and long term electromagnetic fields exposure on the human hippocampus.” Journal of Microscopy and Ultrastructure (2017). doi: 10.1016/j.jmau.2017.07.001.

• This pilot investigation of female medical students finds that electromagnetic fields exposure does not alter the volume of the human hippocampus.

• Widespread use of mobile phones among medical students results in a low level of concentration in the present study.

• Prolonged use of mobile phones can lead to a decline in the ability to suppress stimuli.

Altun, Gamze, et al. “Protective effects of melatonin and omega-3 on the hippocampus and the cerebellum of adult Wistar albino rats exposed to electromagnetic fields.” Journal of Microscopy and Ultrastructure , 2017.

• “The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of pulsed digital electromagnetic radiation emitted by mobile phones on the central nervous system of the adult Wistar albino rats.
• The 12-weeks-old rats were exposed to 900 MHz EMF for 60 min/day (4:00–5:00 p.m.) for 15 days.
• Significant cell loss in the CA1 and CA2 regions of hippocampus were observed in the EMF compared to other groups (p < 0.01). In the CA3 region of the EMF + ω3, a significant cell increase was found compared to other groups (p < 0.01). Granular cell loss was observed in the dentate gyrus of the EMF compared to the Cont (p < 0.01). EMF + ω3 has more granular cells in the cerebellum than the Cont, EMF + Mel (p < 0.01). Significant Purkinje cell loss was found in the cerebellum of EMF group compared to the other (p < 0.01). EMF + Mel and EMF + ω3 showed the same protection compared to the Cont (p > 0.05).
• The passive avoidance test showed that entrance latency into the dark compartment was significantly shorter in the EMF (p < 0.05). Additionally, EMF had a higher serum enzyme activity than the other groups (p < 0.01).
• In conclusion, our analyses confirm that EMF may lead to cellular damage in the hippocampus and the cerebellum, and that Mel and ω3 may have neuroprotective effects.”

Kim, Ju Hwan, et al. “Long-term exposure to 835 MHz RF-EMF induces hyperactivity, autophagy and demyelination in the cortical neurons of mice.” Scientific Reports, vol. 7, no. 41129, 2017.

• This study assessed neuronal effects of RF-EMF on the cerebral cortex of the mouse brain as a proxy for cranial exposure during mobile phone use. The aim was to examine activation of autophagy pathway in the cerebral cortex, a brain region that is located relatively externally.
• C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 835 MHz RF-EMF at a specific absorption rate (SAR) of 4.0 W/kg for 5 hours/day during 12 weeks.
• Induction of autophagy genes and production of proteins including LC3B-II and Beclin1 were increased and accumulation of autolysosome was observed in neuronal cell bodies. However, proapoptotic factor Bax was down-regulted in the cerebral cortex. Importantly, we found that RF-EMF exposure led to myelin sheath damage and mice displayed hyperactivity-like behaviour.
• The data suggest that autophagy may act as a protective pathway for the neuronal cell bodies in the cerebral cortex during radiofrequency exposure. The observations that neuronal cell bodies remained structurally stable but demyelination was induced in cortical neurons following prolonged RF-EMF suggests a potential cause of neurological or neurobehavioural disorders.

Sharma, Archana, et al. “Ten gigahertz microwave radiation impairs spatial memory, enzymes activity, and histopathology of developing mice brain.” Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 2017.

• The objective of the present study was to explore the effects of 10 GHz microwave radiation on developing mice brain.
• Two weeks old mice were exposed for 2 h/day for 15 consecutive days.
• Body weight result showed significant changes immediately after treatment, whereas non-significant changes were observed in mice attaining 6 weeks of age. Several other endpoints like brain weight, lipid peroxidation, glutathione, protein, catalase, and superoxide dismutase were also found significantly (p < 0.05) altered in mice whole brain. Moreover, statistically significant (p < 0.001) effect was investigated in spatial memory of the animals, in learning to locate the position of platform in Morris water maze test. Significant alteration in histopathological parameters (qualitative and quantitative) was also observed in CA1 region of the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and ansiform lobule of cerebellum.
• Results from the present study concludes that the brain of 2 weeks aged mice was very sensitive to microwave exposure as observed immediately after exposure and during follow-up study at 6 weeks of age.

Sahin, Duygu, et al. “The 2100MHz radiofrequency radiation of a 3G-mobile phone and the DNA oxidative damage in brain.” Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 75 (2016): 94-98.

• “Our main finding was the increased oxidative DNA damage to brain after 10 days of exposure with the decreased oxidative DNA damage following 40 days of exposure compared to their control groups. Besides decreased lipid peroxidation end product, MDA, was observed after 40 days of exposure.
• The measured decreased quantities of damage during the 40 days of exposure could be the means of adapted and increased DNA repair mechanisms.”

Tang, Jun, et al. “Exposure to 900MHz electromagnetic fields activates the mkp-1/ERK pathway and causes blood-brain barrier damage and cognitive impairment in rats.” Brain Research, vol. 1601, 2015, pp. 92-101.

• This study demonstrated, for the first time, the blood-brain barrier and cognitive changes in rats exposed to 900 MHz electromagnetic field (EMF) and aims to elucidate the potential molecular pathway underlying these changes.
• A total of 108 male SpragueDawley rats were exposed to a 900 MHz, 1 mW/cm2 EMF or sham (unexposed) for 14 or 28 days (3 h per day). The specific energy absorption rate (SAR) varied between 0.016 (whole body) and 2 W/kg (locally in the head).
• Researchers found that the frequency of crossing platforms and the percentage of time spent in the target quadrant were lower in rats exposed to EMF for 28 days than in rats exposed to EMF for 14 days and unexposed rats. Moreover, 28 days of EMF exposure induced cellular edema and neuronal cell organelle degeneration in the rat. In addition, damaged BBB permeability, which resulted in albumin and HO-1 extravasation were observed in the hippocampus and cortex.
• “Thus, for the first time, we found that EMF exposure for 28 days induced the expression of mkp-1, resulting in ERK dephosphorylation. Taken together, these results demonstrated that exposure to 900 MHz EMF radiation for 28 days can significantly impair spatial memory and damage BBB permeability in rat by activating the mkp-1/ERK pathway.”

Dasdag et al. “Effects Of 2.4 Ghz Radiofrequency Radiation Emitted From Wi-Fi Equipment On microRna Expression In Brain Tissue.” International Journal of Radiation Biology, vol. 16, 2015, pp. 1-26.

• The significant effects on microRNAs observed in this study were found from Wi-Fi exposure that was well below the legal limit. CONCLUSION: Long term exposure of 2.4 GHz RF may lead to adverse effects such as neurodegenerative brain diseases originated from the alteration of some miRNAs expression.

Roggeveen S, et al. EEG changes due to experimentally induced 3G mobile phone radiation. PLoS One,  vol. 10, no. 6, 2015.

• A15-minute placement of a 3G dialing mobile phone causes direct changes in EEG activity compared to the placement of a sham phone. Thirty-one healthy females participated. All subjects were measured twice: on one of the two days the mobile phone was attached to the ear, the other day to the chest. In this single-blind, cross-over design, assessments in the sham phone condition were conducted directly preceding and following the mobile phone exposure.
• Delta, theta, alpha, slowbeta, fastbeta, and gamma activity was computed. The association between radiation exposure and the EEG was tested using multilevel random regression analyses with radiation as predictor of main interest. Significant radiation effects were found for the alpha, slowbeta, fastbeta, and gamma bands. When analyzed separately, ear location of the phone was associated with significant results, while chest placement was not. The results support the notion that EEG alterations are associated with mobile phone usage and that the effect is dependent on site of placement. Further studies are required to demonstrate the physiological relevance of these findings.

Zarei et al. A Challenging Issue in the Etiology of Speech Problems: The Effect of Maternal Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields on Speech Problems in the Offspring. Journal of Biomedical and Physical Engineering, vol. 5, no. 3, 2015, pp. 151-4.

• RESULTS: We found a significant association between either the call time (P=0.002) or history of mobile phone use (months used) and speech problems in the offspring (P=0.003). However, other exposures had no effect on the occurrence of speech problems. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate a possible association between maternal exposure to electromagnetic field and speech problems in the offspring. Although a major limitation in our study is the relatively small sample size, this study indicates that the maternal exposure to common sources of electromagnetic fields such as mobile phones can affect the occurrence of speech problems in the offspring.

Bin Lv, et al. The alteration of spontaneous low frequency oscillations caused by acute electromagnetic fields exposure. Clinical Neurophysiology, vol. 125, no. 2, 2014, pp. 277-86.

• This study evaluated the possible alteration of regional resting state brain activity induced by the acute radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure (30min) of Long Term Evolution (LTE) signal.
• Researchers found a decreased ALFF value around in left superior temporal gyrus, left middle temporal gyrus, right superior temporal gyrus, right medial frontal gyrus and right paracentral lobule after the real exposure. And the decreased fALFF value was also detected in right medial frontal gyrus and right paracentral lobule.
• The study provided the evidences that 30min LTE RF-EMF exposure modulated the spontaneous low frequency fluctuations in some brain regions.

Júnior, L.C., et al. Behavior and memory evaluation of Wistar rats exposed to 1·8 GHz radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation. Neurological Research, vol. 36, no. 1, 2014.

• Frequency of rearing was increased by 193.3%, revealing an increase in exploratory activity of the animals, which is also related to anxiety, depression, and stressful behavior.
• Our data corroborate that reported by Narayanan et al., 21 who showed in 2012 that animals exposed to mobile phone radiation had an increased frequency of rearing.

Qiao S, et al. Reduction of Phosphorylated Synapsin I (Ser-553) Leads to Spatial Memory Impairment by Attenuating GABA Release after Microwave Exposure in Wistar Rats. PLoS ONE, vol. 9, no. 4, 2014.

• In the rat experiments, there was a decrease in spatial memory performance after microwave exposure. Both microwave exposure and p-Syn I silencing reduced GABA release and maximal reduction was found for the combination of the two, indicating a synergetic effect.
• p-Syn I (ser-553) was found to play a key role in the impaired GABA release and cognitive dysfunction that was induced by microwave exposure.

Razavinasab M, K. Moazzami and M. Shabani. Maternal mobile phone exposure alters intrinsic electrophysiological properties of CA1 pyramidal neurons in rat offspring. Toxicology and Industrial Health, vol. 30, no. 2, 2014, pp. 101-96.

• Mobile phone exposure was mostly associated with a decrease in the number of action potentials fired in spontaneous activity and in response to current injection in both male and female groups. There was an increase in the amplitude of the afterhyperpolarization (AHP) in mobile phone rats compared with the control.
• The results of the passive avoidance and Morris water maze assessment of learning and memory performance showed that phone exposure significantly altered learning acquisition and memory retention in male and female rats compared with the control rats.
• Our results suggest that exposure to mobile phones adversely affects the cognitive performance of both female and male offspring rats using behavioral and electrophysiological techniques.

Redmayne M, Johansson O. Could myelin damage from radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure help explain the functional impairment electrohypersensitivity? A review of the evidence. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, vol. 17, no. 5, 2014, pp. 247-58.

• “This review of RF-EMF peer-reviewed literature outlines the development of myelin through life, and then considers the evidence for an association between myelin integrity and exposure to low-intensity radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) typical in the modern world.
• There are surprisingly little data available in each area, but considered together a picture begins to emerge in RF-EMF-exposed cases: (1) significant morphological lesions in the myelin sheath of rats; (2) a greater risk of multiple sclerosis in a study subgroup; (3) effects in proteins related to myelin production; and (4) physical symptoms in individuals with functional impairment electrohypersensitivity, many of which are the same as if myelin were affected by RF-EMF exposure, giving rise to symptoms of demyelination.In the latter, there are exceptions; headache is common only in electrohypersensitivity, while ataxia is typical of demyelination but infrequently found in the former group.
• Overall, evidence from in vivo and in vitro and epidemiological studies suggests an association between RF-EMF exposure and either myelin deterioration or a direct impact on neuronal conduction, which may account for many electrohypersensitivity symptoms. The most vulnerable are likely to be those in utero through to at least mid-teen years, as well as ill and elderly individuals.

Saikhedkar N, et al. Effects of mobile phone radiation (900 MHz radiofrequency) on structure and functions of rat brain. Neurological Research, vol. 2, no. 6, 2014, pp. 2499-504.

• Thus our findings indicate extensive neurodegeneration on exposure to radio waves. Increased production of reactive oxygen species due to exhaustion of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and increased lipid peroxidation are indicating extensive neurodegeneration in selective areas of CA1, CA3, DG, and cerebral cortex. This extensive neuronal damage results in alterations in behavior related to memory and learning.

Jing J, et al. “The influence of microwave radiation from cellular phone on fetal rat brain. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 31, no. 1, 2012, pp. 57-66.

• Pregnant rats were exposed to different intensities of microwave radiation from cellular phones.
• Significant content differences were found in  superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), malondialdehyde (MDA), noradrenaline (NE), dopamine (DA) after fetal  brains were assayed.
• “Through this study, we concluded that receiving a certain period of microwave radiation from cellular phones during pregnancy has certain harm on fetal rat brains.”

Sirav B, and N. Seyhan. Effects of radiofrequency radiation exposure on blood-brain barrier permeability in male and female rats. Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 30, no. 4, 2011, pp. 253-60.

• A significant increase in albumin was found in the brains of the RF-exposed male rats when compared to sham-exposed male brains.
• Radio frequency radiation “at levels below the international limits can affect the vascular permeability in the brain of male rats. The possible risk of RFR exposure in humans is a major concern for the society.”

Volkow, N.D., et al. Effects of cell phone radiofrequency signal exposure on brain glucose metabolism. Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 305, no. 8, 2011, pp. 808-13.

• A 50-minute cell phone exposure was associated with increased brain glucose metabolism in the region closest to the antenna.

Maskey, Dhiraj, et al. “Effect of 835 MHz radiofrequency radiation exposure on calcium binding proteins in the hippocampus of the mouse brain.” Brain Research, no. 1313, 2010, pp. 232-41.

• Radiofrequency (RF) radiation might alter intracellular signaling pathways through changes in calcium (Ca(2+)) permeability across cell membranes. Changes in the expression of calcium binding proteins (CaBP) like calbindin D28-k (CB) and calretinin (CR) could indicate impaired Ca(2+)homeostasis due to EMF exposure.
• CB and CR expression were measured with immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus of mice after EMF exposure at 835 MHz for different exposure times and absorption rates.
• Body weights did not change significantly. CB immunoreactivity (IR) displayed moderate staining of cells in the cornu ammonis (CA) areas and prominently stained granule cells. CR IR revealed prominently stained pyramidal cells with dendrites running perpendicularly in the CA area. Exposure for 1 month produced almost complete loss of pyramidal cells in the CA1 area.
• CaBP differences could cause changes in cellular Ca(2+)levels, which could have deleterious effect on normal hippocampal functions concerned with neuronal connectivity and integration.

Nittby H, et al. Effects of microwave radiation upon the mammalian blood-brain barrier. European Journal of Oncology, vol. 5, 2010, pp. 333-55.

• EMF radiation leads to increased permeability of the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) at non-thermal exposure levels.
• Damaging effects from radiofrequency EMF upon neurons has been shown after 28 days and 50 days.
• “The human BBB is very similar to the rodent BBB… it is our sincere belief, that it is more probable than unlikely, that non-thermal EMF from mobile phones and base stations do have effects upon the human brain.

Sonmez, O.F., et al. “Purkinje cell number decreases in the adult female rat cerebellum following exposure to 900 MHz electromagnetic field.” Brain Research, vol. 1356, 2010, pp. 95-101.

• In the presented study, the effects on the number of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum of 16-week (16 weeks) old female rats were investigated following exposure to 900 MHz EMF.
• Three groups of rats, a control group (CG), sham exposed group (SG) and an electromagnetic field exposed group (EMFG) were used in this study.
• Results showed that the total number of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum of the EMFG was significantly lower than those of CG (p< 0.004) and SG (p< 0.002). In addition, there was no significant difference at the 0.05 level between the rats’ body and brain weights in the EMFG and CG or SG. Therefore, it is suggested that long duration exposure to 900 MHz EMF leads to decreases of Purkinje cell numbers in the female rat cerebellum

Bas, O., et al. “900 MHz electromagnetic field exposure affects qualitative and quantitative features of hippocampal pyramidal cells in adult rat.” Brain Research, no. 1265, 2009, pp. 178–85.

• A statistically significant decrease in the pyramidal cells of the hippocampus and an increase in dark cells.

Bas O, et al. Chronic prenatal exposure to the 900 megahertz electromagnetic field induces pyramidal cell loss in the hippocampus of newborn rats. Toxicology and Industrial Health, vol. 25, 2009, pp. 377–84.

• Results: A significant reduction in the total number of pyramidal cells in the cornu ammonis of the hippocampus, which involves short-term memory and learning.
• Sixteen-week old rats are comparable to the age of human teenagers.

Naziroğlu M. and Gumral. Modulator effects of L-carnitine and selenium on wireless devices (2.45 GHz)-induced oxidative stress and electroencephalography records in brain of rat. International Journal of Radiation Biology, vol. 85, no. 8, 2009, pp. 680-9.

• Rats exposed to 2.45 GHz   60 min/day for 28 days had lower cortex brain vitamin A (p < 0.05), vitamin C (p < 0.01) and vitamin E (p < 0.05) concentrations.

Sİrav, Bahriye, and Nesrin Seyhan. “Blood-brain barrier disruption by continuous-wave radio frequency radiation.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 28.2 (2009): 215-222.

• “Results have shown that 20 min RFR exposure of 900 and 1,800 MHz induces an effect and increases the permeability of BBB of male rats. There was no change in female rats. The scientific evidence on RFR safety or harm remains inconclusive. More studies are needed to demonstrate the effects of RFR on the permeability of BBB and the mechanisms of that breakdown.”

Odaci E, O. Bas  and S. Kaplan. Effects of prenatal exposure to a 900 megahertz electromagnetic field on the dentate gyrus of rats: a stereological and histopathological study. Brain Research, no. 1238, 2008,  224–9.

• Prenatal exposure caused a progressive postnatal decline in the number of granule cells of dentate gyrus of the hippocampus of offspring.

Leszczynski, Dariusz, et al. “Non‐thermal activation of the hsp27/p38MAPK stress pathway by mobile phone radiation in human endothelial cells: Molecular mechanism for cancer‐and blood‐brain barrier‐related effects.” Differentiation, vol. 70, no. 2‐3, 2002, pp. 120-9.

• Researchers examined whether non-thermal exposures of cultures of the human endothelial cell line EA.hy926 to 900 MHz GSM mobile phone microwave radiation could activate stress response.
• Changes in the overall pattern of protein phosphorylation suggest that mobile phone radiation activates a variety of cellular signal transduction pathways, among them the hsp27/p38MAPK stress response pathway. Based on the known functions of hsp27, we put forward the hypothesis that mobile phone radiation-induced activation of hsp27 may (i) facilitate the development of brain cancer by inhibiting the cytochrome c/caspase-3 apoptotic pathway and (ii) cause an increase in bloodbrain barrier permeability through stabilization of endothelial cell stress fibers.
• “We postulate that these events, when occurring repeatedly over a long period of time, might become a health hazard because of the possible accumulation of brain tissue damage. Furthermore, our hypothesis suggests that other brain damaging factors may co-participate in mobile phone radiation-induced effects.”

Varghese, Rini, et al. “Rats exposed to 2.45 GHz of non-ionizing radiation exhibit behavioral changes with increased brain expression of apoptotic caspase 3.” Pathophysiology (2017).

• The exposure to non-ionizing radiation of 2.45 GHz caused detrimental changes in rat brain leading to learning and memory decline and expression of anxiety behavior.
• The exposure to radiation induced oxidative stress and fall in brain antioxidants.
• The exposure triggered the gene expression of caspase 3.

Birks, Laura, et al. “Maternal cell phone use during pregnancy and child behavioral problems in five birth cohorts.”  Environment International 104 (2017): 122-131.

• “Overall, 38.8% of mothers, mostly from the Danish cohort, reported no cell phone use during pregnancy and these mothers were less likely to have a child with overall behavioral, hyperactivity/inattention or emotional problems. Evidence for a trend of increasing risk of child behavioral problems through the maternal cell phone use categories was observed for hyperactivity/inattention problems. This association was fairly consistent across cohorts and between cohorts with retrospectively and prospectively collected cell phone use data.”

Deshmukh, P.S., et al. “Cognitive impairment and neurogenotoxic effects in rats exposed to low-intensity microwave radiation.” International Journal of Toxicology, vol. 34, no. 3, 2015, pp. 284-290.

• “The results showed declined cognitive function, elevated HSP70 level, and DNA damage in the brain of microwave-exposed animals. The results indicated that, chronic low-intensity microwave exposure in the frequency range of 900 to 2450 MHz may cause hazardous effects on the brain.”

Narayanan, S.N., et al. “Possible cause for altered spatial cognition of prepubescent rats exposed to chronic radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation.” Metabolic Brain Disease, vol. 30, no. 5, 2015, pp. 1193-206.

• Progressive learning abilities were found to be decreased in RF-EMR exposed rats. Memory retention test performed 24 h after the last training revealed minor spatial memory deficit in RF-EMR exposed group. However, RF-EMR exposed rats exhibited poor spatial memory retention when tested 48 h after the final trial. Hirano bodies and Granulovacuolar bodies were absent in the CA3 pyramidal neurons of different groups studied. Nevertheless, RF-EMR exposure affected the viable cell count in dorsal hippocampal CA3 region. RF-EMR exposure influenced dendritic arborization pattern of both apical and basal dendritic trees in RF-EMR exposed rats.

Schoeni A, Roser K, Röösli M. “Memory performance, wireless communication and exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A prospective cohort study in adolescents.” Environment International, vol. 85, 2015, pp. 343-51.

• A change in memory performance over one year was negatively associated with cumulative duration of wireless phone use and more strongly with RF-EMF dose. This may indicate that RF-EMF exposure affects memory performance.

Deshmukh, P.S., et al. “Effect of low level microwave radiation exposure on cognitive function and oxidative stress in rats.” Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics, vol. 50, no. 2, 2013, pp. 114-9.

• Results showed significant impairment in cognitive function and increase in oxidative stress, as evidenced by the increase in levels of MDA (a marker of lipid peroxidation) and protein carbonyl (a marker of protein oxidation) and unaltered GSH content.

Ntzouni, Maria P., et al. “Transient and cumulative memory impairments induced by GSM 1.8 GHz cell phone signal in a mouse model.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 32, no. 1, 2013, pp. 95-120.

• This study investigates the transient and cumulative impairments in spatial and non-spatial memory of C57Bl/6J mice exposed to GSM 1.8 GHz signal for 90 min daily by a typical cellular (mobile) phone at a specific absorption rate value of 0.11 W/kg.
• One-way analysis of variance revealed statistically significant impairments of both types of memory gradually accumulating, with more pronounced effects on the spatial memory. The impairments persisted even 2 weeks after interruption of the 8 weeks daily exposure, whereas the memory of mice as detected by both tasks showed a full recovery approximately 1 month later.

Aldad, T.S., et al. “Fetal Radiofrequency Radiation Exposure From 800-1900 MHz-Rated Cellular Telephones Affects Neurodevelopment and Behavior in Mice.” Scientific Reports, vol. 2, no. 312, 2012.

• Mice exposed in utero were hyperactive, showed impaired memory, and had dose responsive impaired neurologic transmission in the prefrontal cortex.

Megha, K., et al. “Microwave radiation induced oxidative stress, cognitive impairment and inflammation in brain of Fischer rats.” Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 50, no. 12, 2012, pp. 889-96.

• “Significant impairment in cognitive function and induction of oxidative stress in brain tissues of microwave exposed rats were observed.”
• Increased oxidative stress due to microwave exposure may contribute to cognitive impairment and inflammation in brain.”

Papageorgiou, C., et al. “Effects of wi-fi signals on the p300 component of event-related potentials during an auditory hayling task.” Journal of Integrative  Neuroscience, vol. 10, no. 2, 2011, pp. 189-202.

• A WiFi access point was 1.5 meters away during blind exposures.
• In conclusion, the present findings suggest that Wi-Fi exposure may exert gender-related alterations on neural activity associated with the amount of attentional resources engaged during a linguistic test adjusted to induce Working Memory.

Nittby, H., et al. “Cognitive impairment in rats after long-term exposure to GSM-900 mobile phone radiation.” Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 29, 2008, pp. 219–32.

• GSM exposed rats showed impaired memory for objects and their temporal order of presentation, compared to sham exposed controls (P = 0.02).

Birks, Laura, et al. “Maternal cell phone use during pregnancy and child behavioral problems in five birth cohorts.”  Environment International 104 (2017): 122-131.

• “Overall, 38.8% of mothers, mostly from the Danish cohort, reported no cell phone use during pregnancy and these mothers were less likely to have a child with overall behavioral, hyperactivity/inattention or emotional problems. Evidence for a trend of increasing risk of child behavioral problems through the maternal cell phone use categories was observed for hyperactivity/inattention problems. This association was fairly consistent across cohorts and between cohorts with retrospectively and prospectively collected cell phone use data.”

Pall, Martin L. “Microwave frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs) produce widespread neuropsychiatric effects including depression.” Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy vol. 75, pt. B, 2016, pp. 43-51.

• This paper considers the mechanism by which low intensity microwave EMFs impact the cells of our bodies, how that mechanism may be predicted to impact the nervous system, evidence for such impact from experimental animal studies, genetic polymorphism evidence for that mechanism acting in humans to produce neuropsychiatric effects and finally, the epidemiological evidence for such effects in human populations with repeated low level microwave EMF exposure.
• Results show that microwave EMFs activate voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (VGCCs) concentrated in the brain. VGCC activity causes widespread neuropsychiatric effects in humans (genetic studies). Furthermore, animal studies show such low level MWV EMFs have diverse high impacts in the brain.

Feizhou, Zheng, et al. “Association between mobile phone use and inattention in 7102 Chinese adolescents: a population-based cross-sectional study.” BMC Public Health, vol. 14, no. 1022, 2014.

• A cross-sectional study with 7720 middle school students assessed for inattention and information on Mobile phone use.
• Results: Inattention in adolescents was significantly associated with mobile phone (MP) ownership, the time spent on entertainment on MP per day, the position of the MP during the day and the mode of the MP at night.
• The strongest association between inattention and the time spent on the MP was among students who spent more than 60 minutes per day playing on their MP.

Narayanan SN, et al. “Evaluation of oxidant stress and antioxidant defense in discrete brain regions of rats exposed to 900 MHz radiation.” Bratislava Medical Journal, vol. 115, no. 5, 2014, pp. 260-6.

• RF-EMR exposure for a month induced oxidative stress in rat brain, but its magnitude was different in different regions studied. RF-EMR-induced oxidative stress could be one of the underlying causes for the behavioral deficits seen in rats after RF-EMR exposure.

Aldad TS, et al. “Fetal Radiofrequency Radiation Exposure From 800-1900 Mhz-Rated Cellular Telephones Affects Neurodevelopment and Behavior in Mice.” Scientific Reports,  vol. 2, no. 312, 2012.

• Mice that were exposed to radiation tended to be more hyperactive and had reduced memory capacity.
• Authors attributed the behavioral changes to an effect during pregnancy on the development of neurons in the prefrontal cortex region of the brain.

Divan HA, et al. “Cell phone use and behavioural problems in young children.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, vol. 66, no. 6, 2012, pp. 524-9.

• The findings of the previous publication were replicated in this separate group of participants demonstrating that cell phone use was associated with behavioural problems at age 7 years in children, and this association was not limited to early users of the technology.

Divan HA, et al. “Prenatal and postnatal exposure to cell phone use and behavioral problems in children.” Epidemiology, vol. 19, no. 4, 2012, pp. 523-9.

• Exposure to cell phones prenatally-and, to a lesser degree, postnatally-was associated with behavioral difficulties such as emotional and hyperactivity problems around the age of school entry.

Medeiros, Luisa Nascimento and Tanit Ganz. “Tinnitus and cell phones: the role of electromagnetic radio frequency radiation.” Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, vol. 82, no. 1 2015, 97-104.

• EMRFR can penetrate exposed tissues and safety exposure levels have been established. These waves provoke proved thermogenic effects and potential biological and genotoxic effects. Some individuals are more sensitive to electromagnetic exposure (electrosensitivity), and thus, present earlier symptoms. There may be a common pathophysiology between this electrosensitivity and tinnitus.
• Conclusion: There is already reasonable evidence to suggest caution for using mobile phones to prevent auditory damage and the onset or worsening of tinnitus.

Özgür A, et al. “Effects of chronic exposure to electromagnetic waves on the auditory system.” Acta Otolaryngol, vol. 135, no. 8, 2015, pp. 765-70.

• The histopathologic and immunohistochemical analysis of the exposed rats showed neuronal degeneration signs, such as increased vacuolization in the cochlear nucleus, pyknotic cell appearance, and edema.

• The results support that chronic electromagnetic field exposure may cause damage by leading to neuronal degeneration of the auditory system.

Dhiraj Maskey, Myeung Ju Kim. “Immunohistochemical Localization of Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor and Glial Cell Line-derived Neurotrophic Factor in the Superior Olivary Complex of Mice after Radiofrequency Exposure.” Neuroscience Letters, vol. 564, 2014, pp. 78-82.

• Significant decrements of BDNF immunoreactivity were noted in the lateral superior olivary, medial superior olivary, superior paraolivary nucleus and medial nucleus of the trapezoid body
• The decrease in the immunoreactivity of neurotrophic factors suggests a detrimental effect of RF exposure in the auditory nuclei.

Seckin E, et al. “The effect of radiofrequency radiation generated by a Global System for Mobile Communications source on cochlear development in a rat model.” Journal of Laryngology and Otology, vol. 128, no. 5, 2014, pp. 400-5.

• Electron microscopic evaluation revealed significant differences among the groups with regard to the number of normal, apoptotic and necrotic cells. Conclusion: The findings indicated cellular structural damage in the cochlea caused by radiofrequency radiation exposure during cochlear development in the rat model.

Velayutham P, et al. “High-frequency hearing loss among mobile phone users.” Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, vol. 66, no. 1, 2014, pp. 169-72.

• Researchers found significant hearing loss in the dominant ear compared to the non-dominant ear (P < 0.05). Chronic usage mobile phone revealed high frequency hearing loss in the dominant ear (mobile phone used) compared to the non dominant ear.

Khullar S., A. Sood and S. Sood. “Auditory Brainstem Responses and EMFs Generated by Mobile Phones. Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, vol. 65, no. 3, 2013, pp. 645-9.

• Researchers concluded that long term exposure to mobile phones may affect conduction in the peripheral portion of the auditory pathway. However more research needs to be done to study the long term effects of mobile phones particularly of newer technologies like smart phones and 3G.

Sudan M, et al. “Cell phone exposures and hearing loss in children in the Danish National Birth Cohort.” Paediatric Perinatal Epidemiology, vol. 27, no. 3, 2013, pp. 247- 57.

• We observed weak associations between cell phone use and hearing loss at age 7. Our findings could have been affected by various biases and are not sufficient to conclude that cell phone exposures have an effect on hearing. This is the first large-scale epidemiologic study to investigate this potentially important association among children, and replication of these findings is needed.

Panda N, S. Munjal and J. Bakshi J. “Audiological Disturbances in Long-Term Mobile Phone Users.”  American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, no. 533259, 2007 .

• The study discovered that people who used their phones for more than 60 minutes a day had a worse hearing threshold than those with less use.
• The authors warn users of cell phones to look out for ear symptoms such as ear warmth, ear fullness, and ringing in the ears (tinnitus) as early warning signs that you may have an auditory abnormality. They also suggest the use of earphones, which they found to be safer than holding a mobile phone up to the ears.

Oktay M, and S. Dasdag. “Effects of intensive and moderate cellular phone use on hearing function.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 25, no. 1, 2006, pp. 13-21.

• Detection thresholds in those who talked approximately 2 h per day were found to be higher than those in either moderate users or control subjects, showing that a higher degree of hearing loss is associated with long-term exposure to electromagnetic (EM) field generated by cellular phones.

Das S, Chakraborty S, Mahanta B, A study on the effect of prolonged mobile phone use on pure tone audiometry thresholds of medical students of Sikkim.,J Postgrad Med. 2017 Oct-Dec;63(4):221-225. doi: 10.4103/0022-3859.201419.

• A cross-sectional study was conducted among the medical students who have been using mobile phones for the past 5 years. The effect of mobile phones on the PTA threshold in the exposed ear and the nonexposed ear was assessed.The study shows that there is a significant difference in average air conduction (AC) and bone conduction (BC) hearing threshold among the exposed and the nonexposed ears (P < 0.05). A significant rise of both AC and BC threshold at individual frequencies between the exposed and the nonexposed ear is also noted in this study.

Demir YP, Sumer MM. Effects of smartphone overuse on headache, sleep and quality of life in migraine patients. Neurosciences (Riyadh). 2019 Apr;24(2):115-121. doi: 10.17712/nsj.2019.2.20180037.

• CONCLUSION: Smartphone use has been observed to increase headache duration and frequency in migraine patients. Its overuse in migraine patients is related to poor sleep quality and daytime sleepiness; furthermore, as the smartphone use increases, sleep quality decreases, daytime sleepiness increases and quality of life decreases.

Wang, Jing, et al. “Mobile Phone Use and The Risk of Headache: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Cross-sectional Studies.” Scientific Reports 7.12595 (2017). doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-12802-9

• We found that the risk of headache was increased by 38% in mobile phone (MP) user compared with non-MP user. Among MP users, the risk of headache was also increased in those who had longer daily call duration and higher daily call frequency.
• Our data indicate that MP use is significantly associated with headache, further epidemiologic and experimental studies are required to affirm and understand this association.

Cho, Y.M., et. al. “A cross-sectional study of the association between mobile phone use and symptoms of ill health. Environmental Health and Toxicology (2016).

• The average daily phone call frequency showed a significant correlation with the perceived stress scale score in female subjects. Mobile phone call duration was not significantly associated with stress, sleep, cognitive function, or depression, but was associated with the severity of headaches.

Küçer N and T. Pamukçu. “Self-reported symptoms associated with exposure to electromagnetic fields: a questionnaire study.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine 33.1 (2014): 15-7.

• Self-reported symptoms were headache, vertigo/dizziness, fatigue, forgetfulness, sleep disturbance-insomnia, tension-anxiety, joint and bone pain, lacrimation of the eyes, hearing loss and tinnitus.
• As a result of the survey, the study has shown that users of mobile phone and computer more often complained of headache, joint and bone pain, hearing loss, vertigo/dizziness, tension-anxiety symptoms according to time of daily usage (p < 0.05).

Szyjkowska, A., et al. “The risk of subjective symptoms in mobile phone users in Poland – An epidemiological study. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, vol. 27, no. 2, 2014, pp. 293-303.

• Headaches were reported significantly more often by the people who talked frequently and long in comparison with other users.
• Results show that the mobile phone users may experience subjective symptoms, the intensity of which depends on the intensity of use of mobile phones.

Madhuri Sudan, et al. “Prenatal and Postnatal Cell Phone Exposures and Headaches in Children.” Open Pediatrics Medical Journal,  vol. 6, 2012, pp. 46-52.

• Children with cell phone exposure had higher odds of migraines and headache-related symptoms than children with no exposure.

Divan, H.A., et al. “Prenatal and postnatal exposure to cell phone use and behavioral problems in children.” Epidemiology, vol. 19, no. 4, 2008, pp. 523-9.

• Exposure to cell phones prenatally-and, to a lesser degree, postnatally-was associated with behavioral difficulties such as emotional and hyperactivity problems around the age of school entry. These associations may be noncausal and may be due to unmeasured confounding. If real, they would be of public health concern given the widespread use of this technology.

Schmid MR, et al. “Sleep EEG alterations: effects of different pulse-modulated radio frequency electromagnetic fields.” Journal of Sleep Research, vol. 21, no. 1, 2012, pp. 50-8.

• The current study aimed: (i) to determine if modulation components above 20 Hz, in combination with radio frequency, are necessary to alter the electroencephalogram; and (ii) to test the demodulation hypothesis, if the same effects occur after magnetic field exposure with the same pulse sequence used in the pulse-modulated radio frequency exposure.
• Radio frequency exposure increased electroencephalogram power in the spindle frequency range. Furthermore, delta and theta activity (non-rapid eye movement sleep), and alpha and delta activity (rapid eye movement sleep) were affected following both exposure conditions. No effect on sleep architecture and no clear impact of exposure on cognition was observed.
• These results demonstrate that both pulse-modulated radiofrequency and pulsed magnetic fields affect brain physiology, and the presence of significant frequency components above 20 Hz are not fundamental for these effects to occur.

Hillert, L., et al. “The Effects of 884 MHz GSM Wireless Communication Signals on Self-reported Symptom and Sleep (EEG)- An Experimental Provocation Study.” Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 3, no. 7, 2007, pp. 1148-50.

• Researchers studied the effect of radiofrequency field (RF) on self-reported symptoms and detection of fields after a prolonged exposure time and with a well defined study group including subjects reporting symptoms attributed to mobile phone use.
• The results showed that headache was more commonly reported after RF exposure than sham, mainly due to an increase in the non-symptom group. Neither group could detect RF exposure better than by chance. A belief that the RF exposure had been active was associated with skin symptoms. The higher prevalence of headache in the non-symptom group towards the end of RF exposure justifies further investigation of possible physiological correlates.

Regel SJ, et al. “Pulsed radio-frequency electromagnetic fields: dose-dependent effects on sleep, the sleep EEG and cognitive performance.” Journal of Sleep Research, vol. 16, no. 3, 2007,  pp. 253-8.

• To establish a dose-response relationship between the strength of electromagnetic fields (EMF) and previously reported effects on the brain, we investigated the influence of EMF exposure by varying the signal intensity in three experimental sessions.
• Results revealed first indications of a dose-response relationship between EMF field intensity and its effects on brain physiology as demonstrated by changes in the sleep EEG and in cognitive performance.

Mann and J. Röschke. “Effects of Pulsed High-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields on Human Sleep.” Neuropsychobiology, vol. 33, 1996, pp. 41-47.

• Shortening of sleep onset latency and a REM (Rapid Eye Movement) suppressive effect with reduction of duration and percentage of REM sleep.
• “The effects observed possibly could be associated with alterations of memory and learning functions.”

Igor Yakymenko, et al. “Oxidative mechanisms of biological activity of low-intensity radiofrequency radiation.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 2015.

• 93 out of 100 currently available peer-reviewed studies dealing with oxidative effects of low-intensity RFR, confirmed that RFR induces oxidative effects in biological systems.
• In conclusion, our analysis demonstrates that low-intensity RFR is an expressive oxidative agent for living cells with a high pathogenic potential and that the oxidative stress induced by RFR exposure should be recognized as one of the primary mechanisms of the biological activity of this kind of radiation.

Jbirea JM, Azab AE, Elsayed ASI. Disturbance in haematological parameters induced by exposure to electromagnetic fields. Hematology & Transfusion International Journal. 6(6):242-251. 2018.

• Conclusion: It can be concluded that exposure of human and experimental animals to EMFs cause harmful effects on blood cells. These effects were disturbance in haematological parameters depending on species, the sources of EMFs, frequencies, intensities and duration of exposure.

Doyon, P. R., and O. Johansson. “Electromagnetic fields may act via calcineurin inhibition to suppress immunity, thereby increasing risk for opportunistic infection: Conceivable mechanisms of action.” Medical Hypotheses, vol. 106, 2017, pp. 71-87.

• It is hypothesized here that exposures to electromagnetic fields have the potential to inhibit immune system response by means of an eventual pathological increase in the influx of calcium into the cytoplasm of the cell, which induces a pathological production of reactive oxygen species, which in turn can have an inhibitory effect on calcineurin.
• Calcineurin inhibition leads to immunosuppression, which in turn leads to a weakened immune system and an increase in opportunistic infection.

Çelik, Ömer, Mehmet Cemal Kahya, and Mustafa Nazıroğlu. “Oxidative stress of brain and liver is increased by Wi-Fi (2.45 GHz) exposure of rats during pregnancy and the development of newborns.” Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy, vol. 75, 2016, pp. 134-9.

• This study aimed to investigate the effects of Wi-Fi-induced EMR on the brain and liver antioxidant redox systems in the rat during pregnancy and development.
• “In conclusion, Wi-Fi-induced oxidative stress in the brain and liver of developing rats was the result of reduced GSH-Px, GSH and antioxidant vitamin concentrations. Moreover, the brain seemed to be more sensitive to oxidative injury compared to the liver in the development of newborns.”

Kuybulu et al. “Effects of long-term pre- and post-natal exposure to 2.45 GHz wireless devices on developing male rat kidney.” Renal Failure, vol. 38, no. 4, 2016, pp. 571-80.

• The aim of the present study was to investigate oxidative stress and apoptosis in kidney tissues of male Wistar rats that pre- and postnatally exposed to wireless electromagnetic field (EMF) with an internet frequency of 2.45 GHz for a long time.
• Tubular injury was detected in most of the specimens in post-natal groups.
• Based on this study, it is thought that chronic pre- and post-natal period exposure to wireless internet frequency of EMF may cause chronic kidney damages; staying away from EMF source in especially pregnancy and early childhood period may reduce negative effects of exposure on kidney.

Mina, Despoina, et al. “Immune responses of a wall lizard to whole-body exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation.” International Journal of Radiation Biology, vol. 92, no. 3, 2016, pp. 162-168.

• “The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of radiofrequency EMR emitted by a widely used wireless communication device, namely the Digital Enhanced Communication Telephony (DECT) base, on the immune responses of the Aegean wall lizard (Podarcis erhardii).”
• “Our results revealed a noticeable suppression (approximately 45%) of inflammatory responses in EMR-exposed lizards compared to sham-exposed animals. T cell-mediated responses were marginally affected.”
• Researchers concluded that daily radiofrequency EMR exposure seems to affect, at least partially, the immunocompetence of the Aegean wall lizard.

Pandey, Neelam, et al. “Radiofrequency radiation (900 MHz)-induced DNA damage and cell cycle arrest in testicular germ cells in swiss albino mice.” Toxicology and Industrial Health, 2016.

• In view of a widespread and extensive use of mobile phones, this study evaluates alterations in male germ cell transformation kinetics following RFR exposure and after recovery.
• Swiss albino mice were exposed to RFR (900 MHz) for 4 h and 8 h duration per day for 35 days.
• RFR exposure caused depolarization of mitochondrial membranes resulting in destabilized cellular redox homeostasis. Statistically significant increases in the damage index in germ cells and sperm head defects were noted in RFR-exposed animals.
• 2.5-fold increases in spermatogonial populations with significant decreases in spermatids. Almost fourfold reduction in spermatogonia to spermatid turnover (1C:2C) and three times reduction in primary spermatocyte to spermatid turnover (1C:4C) was found indicating arrest in the premeiotic stage of spermatogenesis, which resulted in loss of post-meiotic germ cells apparent from testis histology and low sperm count in RFR-exposed animals.
• To conclude, RFR exposure-induced oxidative stress causes DNA damage in germ cells, which alters cell cycle progression leading to low sperm count in mice.

Sahin, Duygu, et al. “The 2100MHz radiofrequency radiation of a 3G-mobile phone and the DNA oxidative damage in brain.” Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 75 (2016): 94-98.

• “Our main finding was the increased oxidative DNA damage to brain after 10 days of exposure with the decreased oxidative DNA damage following 40 days of exposure compared to their control groups. Besides decreased lipid peroxidation end product, MDA, was observed after 40 days of exposure.
• The measured decreased quantities of damage during the 40 days of exposure could be the means of adapted and increased DNA repair mechanisms.”

Bodera, et al. Influence of electromagnetic field (1800 MHz) on lipid peroxidation in brain, blood, liver and kidney in rats. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, vol. 28, no. 4, 2015, pp. 751-9.

• Administration of tramadol together with the EMF exposure enhanced lipid peroxidation in kidneys, blood, and brain, both in healthy rats and those with inflammation, which was similar to the results of our previous study carried out by another method.
• It can be concluded that the increased risk of oxidative stress in various organs due to electromagnetic radiation should be taken into account. However, this risk burden is probably determined by the duration of exposure, SAR and also additional environmental factors.

Cetin H, et al. “Liver antioxidant stores protect the brain from electromagnetic radiation (900 and 1800 MHz)-induced oxidative stress in rats during pregnancy and the development of offspring.” Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine, vol. 27, no. 6, 2014.

• EMR-induced oxidative stress in the brain and liver was reduced during the development of offspring.EMR could be considered as a cause of oxidative brain and liver injury in growing rats.

Hou Q, et al. “Oxidative changes and apoptosis induced by 1800-MHz electromagnetic radiation in NIH/3T3 cells.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 34, no. 1, 2014, pp. 85-92.

• Our results showed a significant increase in intracellular ROS levels after EMR exposure.
• These results indicate that an 1800-MHz EMR enhances ROS formation and promotes apoptosis in NIH/3T3 cells.

Yakymenko, Igor, et al. “Low intensity radiofrequency radiation: a new oxidant for living cells.” Oxidants and Antioxidants in Medical Science, vol. 3, no. 1, 2014, pp. 1-3.

• A “strong non-thermal character of biological effects of RFR has been documented” and “it is clear that the substantial overproduction of ROS in living cells under low intensity RFR exposure could cause a broad spectrum of health disorders and diseases, including cancer in humans.
• Undoubtedly, this calls for the further intensive research in the area, as well as to a precautionary approach in routine usage of wireless devices.”

Hamzany Y, et al. “Is Human Saliva an Indicator of the Adverse Health Effects of Using Mobile Phones?” Antioxidants and Redox Signaling, vol. 18, no. 6, 2013, pp. 622-7.

• Researchers found significant increases in all salivary oxidative stress indices studied in mobile phone users.
• Salivary flow, total protein, albumin, and amylase activity were decreased in mobile phone users.
• “These observations lead to the hypothesis that the use of mobile phones may cause oxidative stress and modify salivary function.”

Nazıroğlu, M., et al. “Recent reports of Wi-Fi and mobile phone-induced radiation on oxidative stress and reproductive signaling pathways in females and males.” Journal of Membrane Biology, vol. 246, no. 12, 2013, pp. 869-75.

• In conclusion, the results of current studies indicate that oxidative stress from exposure to Wi-Fi and mobile phone-induced EMR is a significant mechanism affecting female and male reproductive systems.

Szmigielski, Stanislaw. “Reaction of the immune system to low-level RF/MW exposures.” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 454, 2013, pp. 393-400.

• “In this review, the impacts of weak RF/MW fields, including cell phone radiation, on various immune functions, both in vitro and in vivo, are discussed. The bulk of available evidence clearly indicates that various shifts in the number and/or activity of immunocompetent cells are possible, however the results are inconsistent.”

• “Certain premises exist which indicate that, in general, short-term exposure to weak MW radiation may temporarily stimulate certain humoral or cellular immune functions, while prolonged irradiation inhibits the same functions.”

Szmigielski S, Luczak M, Wiranowska M, “Effect of microwaves on cell function and virus replication in cell cultures irradiated in vitro”, Ann N Y Acad Sci 1975; 247: 263-274  [PDF]

• “Irradiation of cell suspensions in vitro with microwave energy results in func- tional disturbances at the cellular and subcellular level, which include inhibition of cell growth,6 chromosomal increased cell membrane permeability,’ depression of phagocyto~is,~ and formation of atypical cells.”.14 In certain
  instances, small nonthermal doses of microwave radiation in vitro may stimulate human lymphocytes to divide and transform.” In view of the above observations, it seemed interesting to investigate the effect of microwave radiation on continuous cell lines growing in vitro.”
•  
• “That exposure to 5 mW/cm2 stimulates oxidative metabolism and virus multiplication could best be observed in cultures infected 1 hr after treatment and in those infected with virus before irradiation. The ability to reduce nitro blue tetrazolium without any external substrate is a function of oxygen consumption intensity and pentose phosphate shuntlo activity. The high nitro blue tetrazolium reduction rate in cultures infected with myxovirus and exposed to 5 mW/cm2 microwave radiation and the resultant stimulation of oxidative metabolism may be the causes of increased virus multiplication”
•  

Ballardin, Michela, et al. “Non-thermal effects of 2.45 GHz microwaves on spindle assembly, mitotic cells and viability of Chinese hamster V-79 cells.” Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, vol. 716, no. 1, 2011, pp. 1-9.

• “The production of mitotic spindle disturbances and activation of the apoptosis pathway in V79 Chinese hamster cells by continuous 2.45 GHz microwaves exposure were studied, in order to investigate possible non-thermal cell damage.
• We demonstrated that microwave (MW) exposure at the water resonance frequency was able to induce alteration of the mitotic apparatus and apoptosis as a function of the applied power densities (5 and 10 mW/cm²), together with a moderate reduction in the rate of cell division.
• After an exposure time of 15 min the proportion of aberrant spindles and of apoptotic cells was significantly increased, while the mitotic index decreased as well, as compared to the untreated V79 cells.”

Augner C, et al. “Effects of exposure to GSM mobile phone base station signals on salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase, and immunoglobulin A.” Biomedical and Environmental Science, vol. 23, no. 3, 2010, pp. 199-207.

• Increases of cortisol and a higher concentration of alpha-amylase were detected in subjects under various EMF exposure scenarios.
• RF-EMF in considerably lower field densities than ICNIRP-guidelines may influence certain psychobiological stress markers.

Grigoriev, Yury G., et al. “Confirmation studies of Soviet research on immunological effects of microwaves: Russian immunology results.” Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 31, no. 8, 2010, pp. 589-602.

• “This paper presents the results of a replication study performed to investigate earlier Soviet studies conducted between 1974 and 1991 that showed immunological and reproductive effects of long-term low-level exposure of rats to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields.
• Our results showed the same general trends as the earlier study, suggesting possible adverse effects of the blood serum from exposed rats on pregnancy and foetal development of intact rats, however, application of these results in developing exposure standards is limited.”

Tomruk A, Guler G and A.S. Dincel. “The influence of 1800 MHz GSM-like signals on hepatic oxidative DNA and lipid damage in nonpregnant, pregnant, and newly born rabbits.” Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics, vol. 56, no. 1, 2010, pp. 39-47.

• The whole-body 1800 MHz GSM-like RF radiation exposure may lead to oxidative destruction as being indicators of subsequent reactions that occur to form oxygen toxicity in tissues

De Luca, Chiara, et al. “Metabolic and Genetic Screening of Electromagnetic Hypersensitive Subjects as a Feasible Tool for Diagnostics and Intervention.” Mediators of Inflammation, vol. 2014, no. 924184, 2014.

• Researchers hypothesized that “sensitivity-related illnesses” (SRI), not being merely psychogenic, may share organic determinants of impaired detoxification of common physic-chemical stressors.
• Results show comparable—though milder—metabolic pro-oxidant/proinflammatory alterations in EHS with distinctively increased plasma coenzyme-Q10 oxidation ratio.

Burlaka A, et al. “Overproduction of free radical species in embryonal cells exposed to low intensity radiofrequency radiation.” Experimental Oncology, vol. 35, no. 3, 2013, pp. 219-25.

• Exposure of developing quail embryos to extremely low intensity RF-EMR of GSM 900 MHz during at least one hundred and fifty-eight hours leads to a significant overproduction of free radicals/reactive oxygen species and oxidative damage of DNA in embryo cells. These oxidative changes may lead to pathologies up to oncogenic transformation of cells.

Güler G, et al. “The effect of radiofrequency radiation on DNA and lipid damage in female and male infant rabbits.” International Journal of Radiation Biology, vol. 88, no. 4, 2012, pp. 367–73.

• Lipid peroxidation levels in the liver tissues of female and male infant rabbits increased under RF radiation exposure. Liver 8-hydroxy-2 ’ -deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels of female rabbits exposed to RF radiation were also found to increase when compared with the levels of non-exposed infants.
• Researchers concluded that GSM-like RF radiation may induce biochemical changes by increasing free radical attacks to structural biomolecules in the rabbit as an experimental animal model.

Blank M and R. Goodman. “DNA is a fractal antenna in electromagnetic fields.” International Journal of Radiation Biology, vol. 87, no. 4, 2011, pp. 409-15.

• “The wide frequency range of interaction with EMF is the functional characteristic of a fractal antenna, and DNA appears to possess the two structural characteristics of fractal antennas, electronic conduction and self symmetry. These properties contribute to greater reactivity of DNA with EMF in the environment, and the DNA damage could account for increases in cancer epidemiology, as well as variations in the rate of chemical evolution in early geologic history.”

Guler G, et al. “The effect of radiofrequency radiation on DNA and lipid damage in non-pregnant and pregnant rabbits and their newborns.” General Physiology and  Biophysics, vol. 29, no. 1, 2010, pp. 59-66.

• Malondialdehyde and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine levels of non-pregnant and pregnant radiofrequency exposed animals significantly increased compared with non-exposed controls.
• The authors conclude, that 1800 MHz GSM-like radiofrequency exposure of non-pregnant and pregnant rabbits for seven days resulted in the release of secondary messengers, such as free radicals, leading to oxidative destruction in lipids and DNA.

Tomruk A, G. Guler and A.S. Dincel. “The influence of 1800 MHz GSM-like signals on hepatic oxidative DNA and lipid damage in nonpregnant, pregnant, and newly born rabbits.” Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics, vol. 56, no. 1, 2010, pp. 39-47.

• In this study, we found that whole-body 1800 MHz GSM-like RF exposure for 15 min/day for a week could affect lipid peroxidation by increasing MDA and FOX levels in nonpregnants and pregnant.
• The whole-body 1800 MHz GSM-like RF radiation exposure may lead to oxidative destruction as being indicators of subsequent reactions that occur to form oxygen toxicity in tissues.

Xu S, et al. “Exposure to 1800 MHz radiofrequency radiation induces oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA in primary cultured neurons.” Brain Research, vol. 22, no. 1311, 2010, pp. 189-96.

• At 24 h after exposure, we found that RF radiation induced a significant increase in the levels of 8-hydroxyguanine (8-OHdG), a common biomarker of DNA oxidative damage, in the mitochondria of neurons. Concomitant with this finding, the copy number of mtDNA and the levels of mitochondrial RNA (mtRNA) transcripts showed an obvious reduction after RF exposure. Each of these mtDNA disturbances could be reversed by pretreatment with melatonin, which is known to be an efficient antioxidant in the brain.
• These results suggested that 1800 MHz RF radiation could cause oxidative damage to mtDNA in primary cultured neurons. Oxidative damage to mtDNA may account for the neurotoxicity of RF radiation in the brain.

Ruediger, H.W. “Genotoxic effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields.” Pathophysiology, vol. 16, no. 2-3, 2009, pp. 89-102.

• Researchers reviewed 101 publications on the  genotoxicity of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) in vivo and in vitro. Of these 49 report a genotoxic effect and 42 do not. In addition, 8 studies failed to detect an influence on the genetic material, but showed that RF-EMF enhanced the genotoxic action of other chemical or physical agents.
• Taken altogether there is ample evidence that RF-EMF can alter the genetic material of exposed cells in vivo and in vitro and in more than one way. This genotoxic action may be mediated by microthermal effects in cellular structures, formation of free radicals, or an interaction with DNA-repair mechanisms.

Zhijian C, et al. “Impact of 1.8-GHz radiofrequency radiation (RFR) on DNA damage and repair induced by doxorubicin in human B-cell lymphoblastoid cells.” Mutation Research, vol. 695, no. 1-2, 2009, pp. 16-21.

• DNA damage was detected at 0h, 6h, 12h, 18h and 24h after exposure to DOX via the comet assay, and the percent of DNA in the tail (% tail DNA) served as the indicator of DNA damage.
• The results demonstrated that (1) RFR could not directly induce DNA damage of human B-cell lymphoblastoid cells; (2) DOX could significantly induce DNA damage of human B-cell lymphoblastoid cells with the dose-effect relationship, and there were special repair characteristics of DNA damage induced by DOX; (3) E-E-E type (exposure to RFR for 2h, then simultaneous exposure to RFR and DOX, and exposure to RFR for 6h, 12h, 18h and 24h after exposure to DOX) combinative exposure could obviously influence DNA repair at 6h and 12h after exposure to DOX for four DOX doses.

Schwarz C, et al. “Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (UMTS, 1,950 MHz) induce genotoxic effects in vitro in human fibroblasts but not in lymphocytes.” International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, vol. 81, no. 6, 2008, pp. 755-87.

• UMTS exposure increased the CTF and induced centromere-negative micronuclei (MN) in human cultured fibroblasts in a dose and time-dependent way.
• Incubation for 24 h at a SAR of 0.05 W/kg generated a statistically significant rise in both CTF and MN (P = 0.02). At a SAR of 0.1 W/kg the CTF was significantly increased after 8 h of incubation (P = 0.02), the number of MN after 12 h (P = 0.02). No UMTS effect was obtained with lymphocytes, either unstimulated or stimulated with Phytohemagglutinin.
• CONCLUSION: UMTS exposure may cause genetic alterations in some but not in all human cells in vitro.

Topsakal, Senay, et al. “The ameliorative effect of gallic acid on pancreas lesions induced by 2.45 GHz electromagnetic radiation (Wi-Fi) in young rats.” Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences (2017).

• “The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) on the pancreas tissue of young rats and the ameliorative effect of Gallic acid (GA).”
• “The histopathological examination of the pancreases indicated slight degenerative changes in some pancreatic endocrine and exocrine cells and slight inflammatory cell infiltrations in the EMR group. At the immunohistochemical examination, marked increase was observed in calcitonin gene related protein and Prostaglandin E2 expressions in pancreatic cells in this group. There were no changes in interleukin-6 expirations. GA ameliorated biochemical and pathological findings in the EMR+GA group.”
• “These findings clearly demonstrate that EMR can cause degenerative changes in both endocrine and exocrine pancreas cells in rats during the developmental period and GA has an ameliorative effect.”

Mina D et al. “Immune responses of a wall lizard to whole-body exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation.” International Journal of Radiation Biology, vol. 92, no. 3, 2016, pp. 162-8.

• The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of radiofrequency EMR emitted by a widely used wireless communication device, namely the Digital Enhanced Communication Telephony (DECT) base, on the immune responses of the Aegean wall lizard (Podarcis erhardii).
• Results revealed a noticeable suppression (approximately 45%) of inflammatory responses in EMR-exposed lizards compared to sham-exposed animals. T cell-mediated responses were marginally affected.

Hancı H, et al. “Can prenatal exposure to a 900 MHz electromagnetic field affect the morphology of the spleen and thymus, and alter biomarkers of oxidative damage in 21-day-old male rats?” Biotechnic and Histochemistry, vol. 90, no. 7, 2015, pp. 535-43.

• Compared to the control group, thymus tissue malondialdehyde levels were significantly higher in the group exposed to EMF, while glutathione levels were significantly decreased. Increased malondialdehyde and glutathione levels were observed in splenic tissue of rats exposed to EMF, while a significant decrease occurred in superoxide dismutase values compared to controls. Transmission electron microscopy showed pathological changes in cell morphology in the thymic and splenic tissues of newborn rats exposed to EMF.

Kesari KK, Kumar S, Behari J. “Pathophysiology of microwave radiation: effect on rat brain. Appl Biochem Biotechnol.” Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, vol. 166, no. 2, 2012, pp. 379-88.

• Researchers found a significant decrease in the level of pineal melatonin and a significant increase  in creatine kinase, caspase 3, and calcium ion concentration in the exposed group of animals.
• The study concludes that a reduction in melatonin or an increase in caspase-3, creatine kinase, and calcium ion may cause significant damage in brain due to chronic exposure of these radiations. These biomarkers clearly indicate possible health implications of such exposures.

Kesari KK, Kumar S, and J. Behari. “900-MHz microwave radiation promotes oxidation in rat brain.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 30, no. 4, 2011, pp. 219-234.

• The study concludes that a reduction or an increase in antioxidative enzyme activities, protein kinase C, melatonin, caspase 3, and creatine kinase are related to overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in animals under mobile phone radiation exposure. Our findings on these biomarkers are clear indications of possible health implications.

Kumar S, K.K. Kesari and J. Behari. “The therapeutic effect of a pulsed electromagnetic field onthe reproductive patterns of male Wistar rats exposed to a 2.45-GHz microwave field.” Clinics (Sao Paulo), vol. 66, no. 7, 2011, pp. 1237-45.

• This study aimed to examine the therapeutic effects of a pulsed electromagnetic field (100 Hz) on the reproductive systems of male Wistar rats (70 days old).
• The results showed significant increases in caspase and creatine kinase and significant decreases in testosterone and melatonin in the exposed groups. This finding emphasizes that reactive oxygen species (a potential inducer of cancer) are the primary cause of DNA damage. However, pulsed electromagnetic field exposure relieves the effect of microwave exposure by inducing Faraday currents.

Mortavazi S, et al. “Alterations in TSH and Thyroid Hormones following Mobile Phone Use.” Oman Medical Journal, vol. 24, no. 4, 2009, pp. 274–8.

• A higher than normal TSH level, low mean T4 and normal T3 concentrations were found in mobile users.
• “It may be concluded that possible deleterious effects of mobile microwaves on hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis affects the levels of these hormones.”

Koyu A, et al. “Effects of 900 MHz electromagnetic field on TSH and thyroid hormones in rats.” Toxicology Letters, vol. 157, no. 3, 2005, pp. 257-62.

• TSH values and T3-T4 at the 900 MHz EMF group were significantly lower.
• These results indicate that 900 MHz EMF emitted by cellular telephones decrease serum TSH and T3-T4 levels.

Hinrikus, Hiie, et al. “Mechanism of low-level microwave radiation effect on nervous system.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 36, no. 2, 2016, pp. 202-12.

• The aim of this study is to explain the mechanism of the effect of low-level modulated microwave radiation on brain bioelectrical oscillations.
• Experimental data demonstrated that modulated at 40 Hz microwave radiation enhanced EEG power in EEG alpha and beta frequency bands. No significant alterations were detected at 7 and 1000 Hz modulation frequencies.

Saili et al. Effects of acute exposure to WIFI signals (2.45 GHz) on heart variability and blood pressure in Albinos rabbit. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, vol. 40, no. 2, 2015, pp. 600-5.

• Electrocardiogram and arterial pressure measurements were studied under acute exposures to WIFI (2.45 GHz) during one hour in adult male rabbits.
• Acute exposure of rabbits to WIFI increased heart frequency (+22%) and arterial blood pressure (+14%). Moreover, analysis of ECG revealed that WIFI induced a combined increase of PR and QT intervals. By contrast, the same exposure failed to alter maximum amplitude and P waves. After intravenously injection of dopamine (0.50 ml/kg) and epinephrine (0.50 ml/kg) under acute exposure to RF we found that, WIFI alter catecholamines (dopamine, epinephrine) action on heart variability and blood pressure compared to control.

Türedi S, et al. “The effects of prenatal exposure to a 900-MHz electromagnetic field on the 21-day-old male rat heart.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 34, no. 4, 2015, pp. 390-7.

• This study investigated the effects on rat pup heart tissue of prenatal exposure to a 900 megahertz (MHz) EMF.

• Malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase and catalase values were significantly higher in the experimental group rats, while glutathione values were lower. Light microscopy revealed irregularities in heart muscle fibers and apoptotic changes in the experimental group. Electron microscopy revealed crista loss and swelling in the mitochondria, degeneration in myofibrils and structural impairments in Z bands.
• Our study results suggest that exposure to EMF in the prenatal period causes oxidative stress and histopathological changes in male rat pup heart tissue.

Saini, Barjinder Singh and Anukul Pandey. “Effect of Wireless Network Radiation on Heart Rate Variability.” International Journal of Information and Electronics Engineering, vol. 4, no. 1, 2014.

• In this paper, the effects of wireless network radiations (WNR) on Heart Rate Variability (HRV) were been investigated.
• The results indicate that there is a significant increase in DFA scaling exponent when the WNR level changed from minimum to maximum value, as p-value <0.05, whereas the change in mean value of ApEn was not significant due to higher standard deviation among all the subjects. The WNR exposure caused changes in HRV indices and it varied with WNR level, but all the changes cannot be considered as p values were higher.

Alhusseiny A, Al-Nimer M and A. Majeed. “Electromagnetic energy radiated from mobile phone alters electrocardiographic records of patients with ischemic heart disease.” Annals of Medical and Health Science Research, vol. 2, no. 2, 2012, pp. 146-51.

• This study aimed to investigate the effect of radiofrequency of mobile phone on the electrocardiographic parameters in patients with history of ischemic heart disease, taking into consideration the gender factor.
• Electrocardiogram was obtained from each patient when the mobile phone was placed at the belt level and over precordium in turn-off mode (baseline) and turn-on mode for 40 sec ringing.
• The position of mobile at the belt level or over the precordium showed effects on the heart. The radiofrequency of cell phone prolongs the QT interval in human beings and it interferes with voltage criteria of ECG records in male patients with myocardial ischemia.

Esmekaya MA, C. Ozer and N. Seyhan. “900 MHz pulse-modulated radiofrequency radiation induces oxidative stress on heart, lung, testis and liver tissues.” General Physiology and Biophysics, vol. 30, no. 1, 2011, pp. 84-9.

• MDA and NOx levels were increased significantly in liver, lung, testis and heart tissues of the exposed group compared to sham and control groups .(p < 0.05).
• Results of our study showed that pulse-modulated RF radiation causes oxidative injury in liver, lung, testis and heart tissues mediated by lipid peroxidation, increased level of NOx and suppression of antioxidant defense mechanism.

Havas M and J. Marrongelle. “Provocation study using heart rate variability shows microwave radiation from 2.4 GHz cordless phone affects autonomic nervous system.” European Journal of Oncology, vol. 5, 2010, pp. 273-300.

• 10 of the subjects (40 percent) displayed increased heart rate, and arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats, a.k.a. heart palpitations).
• Four subjects experienced overt tachycardia, or intense and prolonged heart racing, after a second or two of exposure, with one subject’s heart almost tripling its rate.
• Strong increases in sympathetic nervous activity and decreases in parasympathetic activity from exposures.

Andrzejak R, et al. “The influence of the call with a mobile phone on heart rate variability parameters in healthy volunteers.” Industrial Health, vol. 46, no. 4, 2008, pp. 409-17.

• The aim of the study was to estimate the influence of the call with a mobile phone on heart rate variability (HRV) in young healthy people.
• It was shown that the call with a mobile phone may change the autonomic balance in healthy subjects. Changes in heart rate variability during the call with a mobile phone could be affected by electromagnetic field but the influence of speaking cannot be excluded.

Cherry, Neil. “Cardiac Effects of Natural and Artificial EMR.” 2002.

• It has been shown that external ELF fields cause altered calcium-concentrations in neurons and heart cells. Altered blood pressure is associated with the Schumann Resonance signal, along with its modulation of human heart disease and mortality rates in a homeostatic manner.
• Electrical and electronic workers, radio/TV workers are shown to have increased risks of heart disease and mortality. We all live in electromagnetic fields which act to contribute to increase the rate of cardiac disease and death.
• A new high risk factor is the usage of a cellphone. Cellphones have been shown to interfere with electronic pacemakers. Therefore it is very reasonable that they will interfere with biological pacemakers, that is, our hearts. The use of a cellphone is associated with significant increase of blood pressure. This is a symptom of hypertension and shows that there is a cardiac risk factor.
• This risk factor is strongly confirmed in the context of the Schumann Resonance signal effects, electrical workers effects and altered cardiac functions in radio, TV and radar exposed workers.

Shandala, M.G., et al. “Study of nonionizing microwave radiation effects upon the central nervous system and behavior reaction.” Environmental Health Perspective, vol. 30, 1979, pp. 115-21.

• The biologic effect of an electromagnetic field of a frequency of 2375 +/- 50 MHz was studied in rats and rabbits in specially constructed absorbant chambers.
• The results of the investigations have shown that microwave radiation of 10, 50, 500 mu W/cm2 for 30 days, 7 hr/day, causes a number of changes in bioelectric brain activity and also in behavioral immunological, and cytochemical reactions. It was found that levels of 10 and 50 mu W/cm2 stimulate the electric brain activity at the initial stage of irradiation, while a level of 500 mu W/cm2 causes its suppression, as seen from the increase of slow, high amplitude delta-waves. At 500 mu W/cm2 a decrease in capacity of work, in value of unconditioned feeding stimulus, in investigating activity, electronic irradiation threshold, and in inhibition of cellular and humoral immunity were also observe

Takashima, S., Onaral, B. and H.P. Schwan. “Effects of modulated RF energy on the EEG of mammalian brain.” Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, vol. 16, no. 1, 1979, pp. 15-27.

• The effects of modulated radio frequency fields on mammalian EEGs were investigated using acute and chronic irradiations at non-thermal level.
• Modulated RF fields produced a change in EEG patterns by enhancing the low frequency components and decreasing high frequency activities. On the other hand, acute irradiations did not produce noticeable changes in the EEG at the level of 0.5-1 kV/M (1-30 MHz, 60 Hz modulation) as long as the use of intracranial electrodes was avoided.

Soffritti, Morando, et al. “Synergism between sinusoidal-50 Hz magnetic field and formaldehyde in triggering carcinogenic effects in male Sprague–Dawley rats.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 59, no. 7, 2016, pp. 509-21.

• Compared to untreated controls, exposure to MF and formaldehyde causes in males a statistically significant increased incidence of malignant tumors (P 0.01), thyroid C-cell carcinomas (P 0.01), and hemolymphoreticular neoplasias (P 0.05). No statistically significant differences were observed among female groups.
• Researchers conclude that life-span exposure to MF and formaldehyde induces statistically significant carcinogenic effects in male rats.

Soffritti, Morando, et al. “Life-span exposure to sinusoidal-50 Hz magnetic field and acute low-dose γ radiation induce carcinogenic effects in Sprague-Dawley rats.” International Journal of Radiation Biology, vol. 92, no. 4, 2016, pp. 202-14.

• The results of the study showed significant carcinogenic effects for the mammary gland in males and females and a significant increased incidence of malignant schwannomas of the heart as well as increased incidence of lymphomas/leukemias in males, leading researchers to call for a re-evaluation of the safety of non-ionizing radiation.

Tang, J., et al. “Exposure to 900 MHz electromagnetic fields activates the mkp-1/ERK pathway and causes blood-brain barrier damage and cognitive impairment in rats.” Brain Research, vol. 1601, 2015, pp. 92-101.

• In this study, scientists confirmed the findings of Leif Salford and colleagues showing that exposure of rats to cell phone radiation causes leakage of the blood-brain barrier (BBB).
• Researchers pointed out that activation of stress response pathway is involved in the effects, concluding, “Taken together, these results demonstrated that exposure to 900 MHz EMF radiation for 28 days can significantly impair spatial memory and damage BBB permeability in rat by activating the mkp-1/ERK pathway.”

Byun Y-H, et al. “Mobile Phone Use, Blood Lead Levels, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Symptoms in Children: A Longitudinal Study.” PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 3, 2013.

• The ADHD symptom risk associated with mobile phone use for voice calls but the association was limited to children exposed to relatively high lead.
• The results suggest that simultaneous exposure to lead and RF from mobile phone use was associated with increased ADHD symptom risk, although possible reverse causality could not be ruled out.

Kostoff, Ronald N. and Clifford G.Y. Lau. “Combined biological and health effects of electromagnetic fields and other agents in the published literature.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, vol. 80, no. 7, 2013, pp. 1331-49.

• There is a wide range of potential effects in which EMF plays a supportive role. Beneficial effects include improved treatment of chronic diseases like cancer by enhancing ionizing radiation or chemotherapy, and accelerated healing of wounds and injuries in concert with other agents. Adverse effects, on the other hand, include enhanced carcinogenesis, cellular or genetic mutations, and teratogenicity.
• The number of potential environmental agent combinations is large, and each combination could potentially have beneficial or adverse effects; much work remains to be done before definitive statements about EMF safety can be made.

Nittby, Henrietta, et al. “Increased blood–brain barrier permeability in mammalian brain 7 days after exposure to the radiation from a GSM-900 mobile phone.” Pathophysiology, vol. 16, no. 2-3, 2009, pp. 103-12.

• Researchers investigated the effects of GSM mobile phone radiation upon the blood–brain barrier permeability of rats 7 days after one occasion of 2 h of exposure.
• Albumin extravasation was enhanced in the mobile phone exposed rats as compared to sham controls after this 7-day recovery period. There was a low, but significant correlation between the exposure level (SAR-value) and occurrence of focal albumin extravasation.

Eberhardt, Jacob L., et al. “Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability and Nerve Cell Damage in Rat Brain 14 and 28 Days After Exposure to Microwaves from GSM Mobile Phones.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 27, no. 3, 2008, pp. 215-29.

• Researchers investigated the effects of global system for mobile communication (GSM) microwave exposure on the permeability of the blood-brain barrier and signs of neuronal damage in rats using a real GSM programmable mobile phone in the 900 MHz band.
• Albumin extravasation and also its uptake into neurons was seen to be enhanced after 14 d, but not after a 28 d recovery period. The occurrence of dark neurons in the rat brains, on the other hand, was enhanced later, after 28 d (p = 0.02). Furthermore, in the 28-d brain samples, neuronal albumin uptake was significantly correlated to occurrence of damaged neurons.

Nittby, Henriettta, et al. “Radiofrequency and Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Field Effects on the Blood-Brain Barrier.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 27, no. 2, 2008, pp. 103-126.

• The mammalian brain is protected by the blood-brain barrier, which prevents harmful substances from reaching the brain tissue. There is evidence that exposure to electromagnetic fields at non thermal levels disrupts this barrier.
• The result of this review paper  is a complex picture, where some studies show effects on the blood-brain barrier, whereas others do not. Possible mechanisms for the interactions between electromagnetic fields and the living organisms are discussed. Demonstrated effects on the blood-brain barrier, as well as a series of other effects upon biology, have caused societal anxiety. Continued research is needed to come to an understanding of how these possible effects can be neutralized, or at least reduced.

Juutilainen, Jukka, Timo Kumlin, and Jonne Naarala. “Do extremely low frequency magnetic fields enhance the effects of environmental carcinogens? A meta-analysis of experimental studies.” International Journal of Radiation Biology, vol. 82, no. 1, 2006, pp. 1-12.

• “This paper is a meta-analysis of data from in vitro studies and short-term animal studies that have combined extremely low frequency magnetic fields with known carcinogens or other toxic physical or chemical agents.”
• “The majority of the studies reviewed were positive, suggesting that magnetic fields do interact with other chemical and physical exposures. Publication bias is unlikely to explain the findings. Interestingly, a nonlinear ‘dose-response’ was found, showing a minimum percentage of positive studies at fields between 1 and 3 mT.”
• “Confirmed adverse effects even at 100 μT would have implications for risk assessment and management, including the need to reconsider the exposure limits for magnetic fields. There is an obvious need for further studies on combined effects with magnetic fields.”

Leszczynski, D., et al. “Non-thermal activation of the hsp27/p38MAPK stress pathway by mobile phone radiation in human endothelial cells: molecular mechanism for cancer- and blood-brain barrier-related effects.” Differentiation, vol. 70, no. 2-3, 2002, pp. 120-9.

• Researchers examined whether non-thermal exposures of cultures of the human endothelial cell line EA.hy926 to 900 MHz GSM mobile phone microwave radiation could activate stress response.
• Results obtained demonstrate that 1-hour non-thermal exposure of EA.hy926 cells changes the phosphorylation status of numerous, yet largely unidentified, proteins. Mobile phone exposure caused a transient increase in phosphorylation of hsp27, an effect which was prevented by SB203580, a specific inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK). Also, mobile phone exposure caused transient changes in the protein expression levels of hsp27 and p38MAPK.
• Based on the known functions of hsp27, we put forward the hypothesis that mobile phone radiation-induced activation of hsp27 may (i) facilitate the development of brain cancer by inhibiting the cytochrome c/caspase-3 apoptotic pathway and (ii) cause an increase in blood-brain barrier permeability through stabilization of endothelial cell stress fibers.
• We postulate that these events, when occurring repeatedly over a long period of time, might become a health hazard because of the possible accumulation of brain tissue damage. Furthermore, our hypothesis suggests that other brain damaging factors may co-participate in mobile phone radiation-induced effects.

Persson, Bertil R.R., et al. “Increased Permeability of the Blood-Brain Barrier Induced by Magnetic and Electromagnetic Fields.” Biological Effects and Safety Aspects of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spectroscopy, vol. 649, 1992, pp. 356-8.

• Researchers first studied the permeability of the blood-brain barrier within male and female rats after exposure to the components of the MRI electromagnetic fields: static magnetic fields (SMF), low frequency pulsed magnetic fields (TVMF), radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (RF), and a combination of these three types of fields.
• The most significant effect was found after exposure to RF electromagnetic fields and to the combined NMR sequence. The effect was found for continuous radiation, but was even more pronounced for pulsed radio-frequency radiation at 8-215 Hz.

Prasad M., et al. “Mobile phone use and risk of brain tumours: a systematic review of association between study quality, source of funding, and research outcomes.” Neurological Sciences, 2017, pp. 1-14.

• This paper aims to investigate whether methodological quality of studies and source of funding can explain the variation in results.
• Relationship between source of funding and log OR for each study was not statistically significant (p < 0.32, 95% CI 0.036–0.010). We found evidence linking mobile phone use and risk of brain tumours especially in long-term users (≥10 years). Studies with higher quality showed a trend towards high risk of brain tumour, while lower quality showed a trend towards lower risk/protection.

Yakymenko, Igor, et al. “Oxidative mechanisms of biological activity of low-intensity radiofrequency radiation.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine vol. 35, no. 2, 2016, pp. 186-202.

• This review aims to cover experimental data on oxidative effects of low-intensity radiofrequency radiation (RFR) in living cells.
• Analysis of the currently available peer-reviewed scientific literature reveals molecular effects induced by low-intensity RFR in living cells; this includes significant activation of key pathways generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), activation of peroxidation, oxidative damage of DNA and changes in the activity of antioxidant enzymes.
• In conclusion, our analysis demonstrates that low-intensity RFR is an expressive oxidative agent for living cells with a high pathogenic potential and that the oxidative stress induced by RFR exposure should be recognized as one of the primary mechanisms of the biological activity of this kind of radiation.

Balmori, Alfonso. “Anthropogenic radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as an emerging threat to wildlife orientation.” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 518-519, 2015, pp. 58-60.

• Current evidence indicates that exposure at levels that are found in the environment (in urban areas and near base stations) may particularly alter the receptor organs to orient in the magnetic field of the earth. These results could have important implications for migratory birds and insects, especially in urban areas, but could also apply to birds and insects in natural and protected areas where there are powerful base station emitters of radiofrequencies. Therefore, more research on the effects of electromagnetic radiation in nature is needed to investigate this emerging threat.

Panagopoulos, Dimitris J., Olle Johansson, and George L. Carlo. “Polarization: A Key Difference between Man-made and Natural Electromagnetic Fields, in regard to Biological Activity.” Scientific Reports, vol. 5, no. 12914, 2015.

• In the present study we analyze the role of polarization in the biological activity of Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs)/Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR).
• All types of man-made EMFs/EMR – in contrast to natural EMFs/EMR – are polarized. Polarized EMFs/EMR can have increased biological activity, due to: 1) Ability to produce constructive interference effects and amplify their intensities at many locations. 2) Ability to force all charged/polar molecules and especially free ions within and around all living cells to oscillate on parallel planes and in phase with the applied polarized field. Such ionic forced-oscillations exert additive electrostatic forces on the sensors of cell membrane electro-sensitive ion channels, resulting in their irregular gating and consequent disruption of the cell’s electrochemical balance.
• Thus, polarization seems to be a trigger that significantly increases the probability for the initiation of biological/health effects.

Redmayne, M. International policy and advisory response regarding children’s exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, 2015.

• Over twenty countries and municipalities have issued policy or advisories on reducing exposure to electromagnetic fields.
• There are a wide variety of approaches which I have categorized and tabulated ranging from ICNIRP/IEEE guidelines and “no extra precautions needed” to precautionary or scientific much lower maxima and extensive advice to minimize RF-EMF exposure, ban advertising/sale to children, and add exposure information to packaging. Precautionary standards use what I term an exclusion principle. The wide range of policy approaches can be confusing for parents/carers of children. Some consensus among advisory organizations would be helpful acknowledging that, despite extensive research, the highly complex nature of both RF-EMF and the human body, and frequent technological updates, means simple assurance of long-term safety cannot be guaranteed. Therefore, minimum exposure of children to RF-EMF is recommended. This does not indicate need for alarm, but mirrors routine health-and-safety precautions. Simple steps are suggested. ICNIRP guidelines need to urgently publish how the head, torso, and limbs’ exposure limits were calculated and what safety margin was applied since this exposure, especially to the abdomen, is now dominant in many children.”

Sangün Ö, et al. “The Effects of Electromagnetic Field on the Endocrine System in Children and Adolescents.” Pediatric Endocrinology Review, vol. 13, no. 2, 2015, pp. 531-45.

• Children are exposed to various kind of non-ionizing radiation in their daily life involuntarily. The potential sensitivity of developing organism to the effects of radiofrequency (RF) signals, the higher estimated specific absorption rate (SAR) values of children and greater lifetime cumulative risk raised the scientific interest for children’s vulnerability to electromagnetic fields (EMFs). In modern societies, children are being exposed to EMFs in very early ages.
• There are many researches in scientific literature investigating the alterations of biological parameters in living organisms after EMFs. Although the international guidelines did not report definite, convincing data about the causality, there are unignorable amount of studies indicating the increased risk of cancer, hematologic effects and cognitive impairment. Although they are less in amount; growing number of studies reveal the impacts on metabolism and endocrine function. Reproductive system and growth look like the most challenging fields. However there are also some concerns on detrimental effects of EMFs on thyroid functions, adrenal hormones, glucose homeostasis and melatonin levels. It is not easy to conduct a study investigating the effects of EMFs on a fetus or child due to ethical issues. Hence, the studies are usually performed on virtual models or animals. Although the results are conflicting and cannot be totally matched with humans; there is growing evidence to distress us about the threats of EMF on children.

Volkow, Nora D., et al. “Effects of Cell Phone Radiofrequency Signal Exposure of Brain Glucose Metabolism.” JAMA, vol. 305, no. 8, 2011, pp. 808-13.

• The objective of this study was to evaluate if acute cell phone exposure affects brain glucose metabolism, a marker of brain activity.
• In healthy participants and compared with no exposure, 50-minute cell phone exposure was associated with increased brain glucose metabolism in the region closest to the antenna.

Carpenter, DO. “Human disease resulting from exposure to electromagnetic fields.”. Reviews on Environmental Health, vol. 28, no. 4, 2013, pp. 159-72.

• This review summarizes the evidence stating that excessive exposure to magnetic fields from power lines and other sources of electric current increases the risk of development of some cancers and neurodegenerative diseases, and that excessive exposure to RF radiation increases risk of cancer, male infertility, and neurobehavioral abnormalities.
• In summary, current extensive evidence shows that exposure to excessive levels of ELF and RF EMFs results in elevated rates of cancer and some other diseases, and such evidence is rapidly growing.

Cucurachi S, et al. “A review of the ecological effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF).” Environment International, vol. 51, 2013, pp. 116-40.

• In about two third of the reviewed studies ecological effects of RF-EMF was reported at high as well as at low dosages.
• “We propose in future studies to conduct more repetitions of observations and explicitly use the available standards for reporting RF-EMF relevant physical parameters in both laboratory and field studies.”

Davis DL, et al. “Swedish review strengthens grounds for concluding that radiation from cellular and cordless phones is a probable human carcinogen.” Pathophysiology, vol. 20, no. 2, 2013, pp. 123-9.

• Recent analyses not considered in the IARC review find that brain tumor risk is significantly elevated for those who have used mobile phones for at least a decade. Studies carried out in Sweden indicate that those who begin using either cordless or mobile phones regularly before age 20 have greater than a fourfold increased risk of ipsilateral glioma.
• High resolution computerized models based on human imaging data suggest that children are indeed more susceptible to the effects of EMF exposure at microwave frequencies. If the increased brain cancer risk found in young users in these recent studies does apply at the global level, the gap between supply and demand for oncology services will continue to widen.
• Brain cancer is the proverbial “tip of the iceberg”; the rest of the body is also showing effects other than cancers.

Herbert MR, Sage C., Autism and EMF? Plausibility of a pathophysiological link – Part I. Pathophysiology, vol. 20, no. 3, 2013, pp. 191-209.

• Part I of this paper will review the critical contributions pathophysiology may make to the etiology, pathogenesis and ongoing generation of core features of ASCs. We will review pathophysiological damage to core cellular processes that are associated both with ASCs and with biological effects of EMF/RFR exposures that contribute to chronically disrupted homeostasis.
• Many studies of people with ASCs have identified oxidative stress and evidence of free radical damage, cellular stress proteins, and deficiencies of antioxidants such as glutathione. Elevated intracellular calcium in ASCs may be due to genetics or may be downstream of inflammation or environmental exposures. Cell membrane lipids may be peroxidized, mitochondria may be dysfunctional, and various kinds of immune system disturbances are common. Brain oxidative stress and inflammation as well as measures consistent with blood-brain barrier and brain perfusion compromise have been documented.

Herbert MR and Sage C. “Autism and EMF? Plausibility of a pathophysiological link part II.” Pathophysiology, vol. 20, no. 3, 2013, pp. 211-34.  

• Part II of this paper documents how behaviors in ASCs may emerge from alterations of electrophysiological oscillatory synchronization, how EMF/RFR could contribute to these by de-tuning the organism, and policy implications of these vulnerabilities. It details evidence for mitochondrial dysfunction, immune system dysregulation, neuroinflammation and brain blood flow alterations, altered electrophysiology, disruption of electromagnetic signaling, synchrony, and sensory processing, de-tuning of the brain and organism, with autistic behaviors as emergent properties emanating from this pathophysiology.
• The evidence is sufficient to warrant new public exposure standards benchmarked to low-intensity (non-thermal) exposure levels now known to be biologically disruptive, and strong, interim precautionary practices are advocated.

Martin Pall. “Electromagnetic fields act via activation of voltage-gated calcium channels to produce beneficial or adverse effects.” Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, vol. 17, no. 8, 2013, pp. 958-65.

• This paper reviews 24 different studies in which EMF exposures produce biological effects that can be blocked by using calcium channel blockers, drugs that block the action of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs).
• EMF exposures act by partially depolarizing the electrical charge across the plasma membrane of cells, activating the VGCCs and it is the increased intracellular calcium levels that are responsible for the reaction to EMF exposure.
• This review explains a mechanism for non-thermal biological effects from EMFs whereby voltage-gated calcium channels are opened up in the cell membrane, allowing calcium to leak into the cells.

Markov M and Y.G. Grigoriev. “Wi-Fi technology – an uncontrolled global experiment on the health of mankind.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 32, no. 2, 2013, pp. 200-8.

• “For the first time in the history of mankind, because of aggressive use of mobile phones children are exposed to harmful non ionizing radiation and potentially are subject of larger risk than adults. Even if the dose received by the children’s brain is the same as for adults, due to the specificity of the body size and physiological development, children are in greater danger.”
• We should stop telling the science, politicians and general population that Wi-Fi is harmless… We should better be honest and say that “we do not know what long-term effects might be.”
• “the continuous non-controlled exposure of the entire civilization to low-intensity EMFs represents now more serious problem for the mankind than ionizing radiation where the sources of radiation are under strict control and are well localized”

Panagopoulos D, O. Johansson and G. Carlo. “Analysing the Health Impacts of Modern Telecommunications Microwaves.” PLoS One, vol. 8, no. 6, 2013.

• “In the present study we showed that microwave radiations used in modern mobile telecommunications can damage DNA and induce cell death or heritable mutations which may in turn result in reproduction decreases, degenerative diseases, or cancer. We analyzed the biophysical and biochemical mechanism underlying this biological impact, and discussed dosimetry and protection issues.
• All healthy organisms have defense mechanisms in order to repair biological damages. But defense mechanisms are weaker in children and old individuals, and become also weaker during sickness or during stress conditions. Although even the most serious biological effects may not necessarily lead to health effects in an exposed individual, all health effects are initiated by corresponding biological ones. Thereby, biological effects-especially the most serious ones as is DNA damage or cell death induction-may potentially lead to health effects.

Goldsworthy, Andrew. “The Biological Effects of Weak Electromagnetic Fields: Problems and Solutions.”2012

• In this article, he explains how weak electromagnetic fields from cell phones, cordless phones and WiFi can have serious effects on our health. These include damage to glands resulting in obesity and related disorders, chronic fatigue, autism, increases in allergies and multiple chemical sensitivities, early dementia, DNA damage, loss of fertility and cancer.

Giuliani, Livio and Morando Soffritti. The ICEMS’ Monograph: “Non-Thermal Effects and Mechanisms of Interaction Between Electromagnetic Fields and Living Matter.” European Journal of Oncology, vol. 5, 2010.

Download the Summary (Adobe Acrobat PDF format)

Download Part I (Adobe Acrobat PDF format)

Download Part II (Adobe Acrobat PDF format)

Blank M and R. Goodman. “Electromagnetic fields stress living cells.” Pathophysiology, vol. 16, no. 2-3, 2009, pp. 71-8.

• Electromagnetic fields (EMF), in both ELF (extremely low frequency) and radio frequency (RF) ranges, activate the cellular stress response, a protective mechanism that induces the expression of stress response genes, e.g., HSP70, and increased levels of stress proteins, e.g., hsp70.
• While low energy EMF interacts with DNA to induce the stress response, increasing EMF energy in the RF range can lead to breaks in DNA strands. It is clear that in order to protect living cells, EMF safety limits must be changed from the current thermal standard, based on energy, to one based on biological responses that occur long before the threshold for thermal changes.

This is just a small sampling of the research. Want to Read It All?

Bioinitiative 2012 Henry Lai’s Research Summaries

The Bioinitiative 2012 Report has an  invaluable sets of abstracts (data-based to be searchable) covering the RFR scientific literature, as well as collections of scientific abstracts on free radical damage (from both RFR and ELF) and a set specific to electrosensitivity.  They cover the research published between 1990-2014. Please see these summaries at the Bioinitiative 2012 site here.

Fernández, A.A. de Salles, M.E. Sears, R.D. Morris, D.L. Davis, Absorption of wireless radiation in the child versus adult brain and eye from cell phone conversation or virtual reality, Environmental Research, 2018, ISSN 0013-9351

Liorni I, et al. COMPUTATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF PREGNANT WOMAN MODELS EXPOSED TO UNIFORM ELF-MAGNETIC FIELDS: COMPLIANCE WITH THE EUROPEAN CURRENT EXPOSURE REGULATIONS FOR THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES AT 50 Hz. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, vol. 172, no. 4, 2016, pp. 382-92.

• For general public, exposure of pregnant women and fetus always resulted in compliance with EU Recommendation. For occupational exposures, (1) Electric fields in pregnant women were in compliance with the Directive, with exposure variations due to fetal posture of <10 %, (2) electric fields in fetuses are lower than the occupational limits, with exposure variations due to fetal posture of >40 % in head tissues, (3) Electric fields in fetal CNS tissues of head are above the ICNIRP 2010 limits for general public at 1 mT (in 7 and 9 months gestational age) and at 6 mT (in all gestational ages).

Fernandez-Rodriguez, C.E., A.A.A. De Salles and Devra Lee Davis. “Dosimetric Simulations of Brain Absorption of Mobile Phone Radiation–The Relationship Between psSAR and Age.” IEEE Access, vol.3, 2015, pp.2425-30.

• A young child’s skull is not only smaller and thinner than an adult’s, but also has dielectric characteristics closer to those of soft tissues, probably due to a higher water content. The young skull better matches the electromagnetic characteristics of the skin and brain. As a result, finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations confirm field penetration and higher specific absorption rate (SAR) in deeper structures in the young brain.
• If the peak spatial SAR (psSAR) is modeled in the entire head, as current testing standards recommend, the results for adults and children are equivalent.
• Our anatomically based evaluations rely on FDTD simulations of different tissues within the brain and confirm that the psSAR in a child’s brain is higher than in an adult’s brain.

Ferreira, Juliana Borges, and Álvaro Augusto Almeida de Salles. “Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) in the head of Tablet users.” 7th Latin American Workshop On Communications, 2015.

• The Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) in the head of tablet user’s was simulated for three different head models and compared with available international recommendations.
• All results were below the safety recommendations set up by the International Commission Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) and the Federal Communications Committee (FCC). Among the heterogeneous models, the highest peak spatial Specific Absorption Rate (psSAR) values were estimated for the children. For 1 g psSAR the child heterogeneous model shows highest value in comparison to the SAM model.

Ferreira, Juliana Borges, Alvaro Augusto Almeida de Salles and Claudio Enrique Fernandez-Rodriguez. “SAR simulations of EMF exposure due to tablet operation close to the user’s body.” Microwave and Optoelectronics Conference, 2015.

• This paper describes an analysis of the interaction between the electromagnetic field generated by a tablet with three different models of human heads: a homogeneous model Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin (SAM) and two heterogeneous models: an adult man and a child. The assessing dosimetric parameters used are the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) computed by SEMCAD X. The distance between the tablet and the head models varies from 50 mm to 200 mm. The SAR decreases with the distance.
• The authors conclude in their paper that, “These devices may be used for many hours each day by adults, adolescents and children, several days a week, and many months each year. Therefore, special precautionary procedures should be taken in order to avoid health risks due to long periods of exposure.”

Gandhi, Om. Yes the Children are more exposed to radio-frequency energy from mobile telephones than adults. IEEE Spectrum, vol. 3, 2015, pp. 985-8.

• In this paper we present arguments based on physics that the main reason for higher exposure of children (also women and men with smaller heads and likely thinner pinnae) to radiofrequency energy from mobile phones is the closer placement of the cell phone radiation source by several millimeters to the tissues of the head, e.g. the brain.

Morris, Robert D., Lloyd L. Morgan, and Devra L. Davis. “Children Absorb Higher Doses of Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation From Mobile Phones Than Adults.” IEEE Access, vol. 3, 2015, pp. 2379-87.

• Foster and Chou (2014) reviewed published studies that used computer models of radio-frequency electromagnetic fields to estimate and compare the tissue dose rate in the heads of children and adults using mobile phones. Their review confuses exposure with absorption, and the study results conclude erroneously that children are not more exposed than adults.
• This study shows that the Foster and Chou review was not executed systematically. There are discrepancies between text summaries and the graphed ratios of child: adult peak special specific absorption rate, in line with the author’s hypothesis that children have the same or lower tissue dose than adults. Even the underlying precept of their review is flawed, as the results of deterministic models are treated as random variables.
• This paper discusses the differences between exposure and tissue absorption and re-examines the results presented by Foster and Chou. Based upon this review, the authors suggest an alternative interpretation of the published literature.

Panagopoulos, Dimitris J., Olle Johansson, and George L. Carlo. “Real versus simulated mobile phone exposures in experimental studies.” BioMedical Research International, vol. 2015, no. 607053, 2015.

• This study examined whether exposures to mobile phone radiation in biological/clinical experiments should be performed with real-life Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) emitted by commercially available mobile phone handsets, instead of simulated EMFs emitted by generators or test phones.
• Real mobile phone emissions are constantly and unpredictably varying and thus are very different from simulated emissions which employ fixed parameters and no variability. This variability is an important parameter that makes real emissions more bioactive. Living organisms seem to have decreased defense against environmental stressors of high variability.
• While experimental studies employing simulated EMF-emissions present a strong inconsistency among their results with less than 50% of them reporting effects, studies employing real mobile phone exposures demonstrate an almost 100% consistency in showing adverse effects. This consistency is in agreement with studies showing association with brain tumors, symptoms of unwellness, and declines in animal populations.
• We conclude that, in order for experimental findings to reflect reality, it is crucially important that exposures be performed by commercially available mobile phone handsets.

Redmayne M, and O. Johansson. “Radiofrequency exposure in young and old: different sensitivities in light of age-relevant natural differences.” Reviews in Environmental Health, vol. 30, no. 4, 2015, pp. 323-35.

• First, we identified the literature which has explored age-specific pathophysiological impacts of RF-EMR. Natural life-span changes relevant to these different impacts provides context for our review of the selected literature, followed by discussion of health and well-being implications.
• We conclude that age-dependent RF-EMR study results, when considered in the context of developmental stage, indicate increased specific vulnerabilities in the young (fetus to adolescent), the elderly, and those with cancer. There appears to be at least one mechanism other than the known thermal mechanism causing different responses to RF-EMR depending upon the exposure parameters, the cell/physiological process involved, and according to age and health status. As well as personal health and quality-of-life impacts, an aging population means there are economic implications for public health and policy.

Cabot, E. et al. “Quantification of RF-exposure of the fetus using anatomical CAD-models in three different gestational stages.” Health Physics, vol. 107, no. 5, 2014, pp. 369-81.

• This study analyzes the exposure of pregnant women and their fetuses in three different gestational stages to electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency range in the near- and the far-field using numerical modeling.
• When applying the reference levels for the general public, researchers found that the fetus is sufficiently shielded by the mother. However, the basic restrictions for general public exposure can be exceeded in the fetus when the mother is exposed at reference levels for occupational conditions.
• For plane wave exposure at occupational levels, the whole body SAR in the fetus can exceed the basic restrictions for the general population by at least 1.8 dB, and in the near-field of professional devices, the 10 g SAR can be non-compliant with the product standard for the general public by > 3.5 dB.

Pizzaro, Y.A.A., et al. “Specific absorption rate (SAR) in the head of Google glasses and Bluetooth user’s.” IEEE Latin-America Conference on Communications, 2014.

• Authors considered and simulated the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) for two popular wireless communication devices – Bluetooth and Google glasses – using three different head models (SAM phantom, 34 year old adults, and 10 year old child). The resulting SAR was then compared with international recommendations.
• The simulations were performed using the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method and the frequency used to feed the antennas was 2.45 GHz.The resulting SAR was then compared with international recommendations.

Verloock, Leen, et al. “Assessment of Radio Frequency Exposures in Schools, Homes, and Public Places in Belgium.” Health Physics, vol. 107, no. 6, 2014, pp. 503-13.

• 94% of the broadband measurements were below 1 V/m. The average and maximal total electric-field values in schools, homes, and public places, were 0.2 and 3.2 V/m (WiFi), 0.1 and 1.1 V/m (telecommunication), and 0.6 and 2.4 V/m (telecommunication), respectively, while for offices, average and maximal exposure was 0.9 and 3.3 V/m (telecommunication), satisfying the ICNIRP reference levels.
• In the considered schools, the highest maximal and average field values were due to internal signals (WiFi). In the considered homes, public places, and offices, the highest maximal and average field values originated from telecommunication signals.

Gultekin, David H. and Lothar Moeller. “NMR imaging of cell phone radiation absorption in brain tissue.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 110, no. 1, 2013, pp. 58-63.

• This study described a method for measuring absorbed electromagnetic energy radiated from cell phone antennae into ex vivo brain tissue. The proposed application of NMR thermometry offers sufficient spatial and temporal resolution to characterize the hot spots from absorbed cell phone radiation in aqueous media and biological tissues.
• Specific absorption rate measurements averaged over 1 mg and 10 s in the brain tissue cover the total absorption volume. Reference measurements with fiber optic temperature sensors confirm the accuracy of the NMR thermometry.

Bellieni et. al. “Exposure to electromagnetic fields from laptop use of “laptop” computers.” Archives of Environmental and Occupational Health, vol. 67, no. 1, 2012, pp. 31-6.

• The authors measured electromagnetic fields (EMFs) laptop computers produce and estimated the induced currents in the body, to assess the safety of laptop computers.
• When close to the body, the laptop induces currents that are within 34.2% to 49.8% ICNIRP recommendations, but not negligible, to the adult’s body and to the fetus (in pregnant women). On the contrary, the power supply induces strong intracorporal electric current densities in the fetus and in the adult subject, which are respectively 182-263% and 71-483% higher than ICNIRP 98 basic restriction recommended to prevent adverse health effects.

Gandhi, O.P., et al. “Exposure limits: the underestimation of absorbed cell phone radiation, especially in children.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 31, no. 1, 2012.

• The existing cell phone certification process uses a plastic model of the head called the Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin (SAM), representing the top 10% of U.S. military recruits in 1989 and greatly underestimating the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) for typical mobile phone users, especially children.
• Radiofrequency (RF) exposure to a head smaller than SAM will absorb a relatively higher SAR. Also, SAM uses a fluid having the average electrical properties of the head that cannot indicate differential absorption of specific brain tissue, nor absorption in children or smaller adults. The SAR for a 10-year old is up to 153% higher than the SAR for the SAM model. When electrical properties are considered, a child’s head’s absorption can be over two times greater, and absorption of the skull’s bone marrow can be ten times greater than adults.
• Therefore, a new certification process is needed that incorporates different modes of use, head sizes, and tissue properties. Anatomically based models should be employed in revising safety standards for these ubiquitous modern devices and standards should be set by accountable, independent groups.

“Sound Exposure and Risk Assessment of Wireless Network Devices.” European Commission, 2012.

• The highest exposures found were due to the use of a mobile phone as a wireless access point with the phone in contact with the body. In this configuration, the maximum exposure may even exceed safety limits by a factor of two or more, depending on the phone  model.
• The estimated mean exposure at the highest data rate is also higher than that of the phone used in talk mode. Therefore, the most effective way for people to reduce exposure is to keep the phone, while tethering, at least 50 mm away from the body (e.g., in a bag) or, even better, more than 200 mm away (e.g., on the table).

Bakker, J. F., et al. “Assessment of Induced SAR in children Exposed to Electromagnetic Plane Waves Between 10 MHz and 5.6 GHz.” Physics in Medicine and Biology, vol. 55, no. 11, 2010, pp. 3115-30.

• The objective of this study was to assess if the SAR in children remains below the basic restrictions upon exposure at the reference levels.
• Researchers found that the basic restriction on the SAR wb is occasionally exceeded for children, up to a maximum of 45% in small children. The maximum SAR 10g values, usually found at body protrusions, remain under the limit for all scenarios studied.

Christ A, et al. “Age-dependent tissue-specific exposure of cell phone users.” Physics in Medicine and Biology, vol. 55, no. 7, 2010, pp. 1767-83.

• In this study, we compare the absorption in various parts of the cortex for different magnetic resonance imaging-based head phantoms of adults and children exposed to different models of mobile phones.
• The results show that the locally induced fields in children can be significantly higher (>3 dB) in subregions of the brain (cortex, hippocampus and hypothalamus) and the eye due to the closer proximity of the phone to these tissues. The increase is even larger for bone marrow (>10 dB) as a result of its significantly high conductivity.

Findlay, R. P., and P. J. Dimbylow. “SAR in a child voxel phantom from exposure to wireless computer networks (Wi-Fi).” Physics in Medicine and Biology, vol. 55, no. 15, 2010, pp. N405-11.

• In all situations studied, the SAR values calculated were considerably below basic restrictions. This represents less than 1% of the SAR previously calculated in the head for a typical mobile phone exposure condition.

Markovà E,  L. Malmgren and I. Belyaev. “Microwaves from Mobile Phones Inhibit 53BP1 Focus Formation in Human Stem Cells More Strongly Than in Differentiated Cells: Possible Mechanistic Link to Cancer Risk.” Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 118, no. 3, 2010, pp. 394–9.

• Researchers studied whether microwaves from mobile telephones of the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and the Universal Global Telecommunications System (UMTS) induce DSBs or affect DSB repair in stem cells.
• The strongest microwave effects were always observed in stem cells. This result may suggest both significant misbalance in DSB repair and severe stress response. Our findings that stem cells are most sensitive to microwave exposure and react to more frequencies than do differentiated cells may be important for cancer risk assessment and indicate that stem cells are the most relevant cellular model for validating safe mobile communication signals.”

Peyman, A., S. Holden, and C. Gabriel. “Dielectric Properties of Tissues at Microwave Frequencies.” Mobile Telecommunications and Health Research Programme, 2009.

• This project consolidated and added to the knowledge of tissue dielectric data by providing a literature review of all relevant papers published in the past decade, and obtaining, analysing and making available extensive, novel, experimental data acquired from measurement on live animals and on tissue excised from animals at various stages of growth and development.
• The results of hte age study showed that while the dielectric properties of grey matter does not change with age, other tissues such as white matter and spinal cord vary significantly. Specifically, study results found that the dielectric parameters (permittivity and equivalent conductivity) in children’s brains are greater (around 10 to 20% higher) in comparison to those in the adults brains, and therefore greater SAR is estimated in the children’s brains.
• The outcome of this study increased understanding of the variation of dielectric properties with age and motivated research on aqueous ionic solutions that proved to be of academic as well as practical interest.

Peyman, A., et al. “Variation of the dielectric properties of tissues with age: the effect on the values of SAR in children when exposed to walkie–talkie devices.” Physics in Biology and Medicine, vol. 54, no. 2, 2009, pp. 227–41.

• In vitro dielectric properties of ageing porcine tissues were measured in the frequency range of 50 MHz-20 GHz, and the total combined uncertainties of the measurements were assessed.
• The results show statistically significant reduction with age in both permittivity and conductivity of 10 out of 15 measured tissues. At microwave frequencies, the observed variations are mainly due to the reduction in the water content of tissues as an animal ages.

Kühn S, et al. “Assessment of induced radio-frequency electromagnetic fields in various anatomical human body models.” Physics in Medicine and Biology, vol. 54, no. 4, 2009, pp. 875-90.

• The reference levels for testing compliance of human exposure with radio-frequency (RF) safety limits have been derived from very simplified models of the human. In order to validate these findings for anatomical models, we investigated the absorption characteristics for various anatomies ranging from 6 year old child to large adult male by numerical modeling.
• Our findings suggest that the reference levels of current electromagnetic (EM) safety guidelines for demonstrating compliance as well as some of the current measurement standards are not consistent with the basic restrictions and need to be revised.

Wiart, J., et al. “Analysis of RF Exposure in the Head Tissues of Children and Adults.” Physics in Medicine and Biology, vol. 53, no. 13, 2008.

• “This paper analyzes the radio frequencies (RF) exposure in the head tissues of children using a cellular handset or RF sources (a dipole and a generic handset) at 900, 1800, 2100 and 2400 MHz.”
• “The maximum specific absorption rate (SAR) over 10 g in the head was analyzed in seven child and six adult heterogeneous head models. The simulations performed show that the differences between the maximum SAR over 10 g estimated in the head models of the adults and the ones of the children are small compared to the standard deviations. But they indicate that the maximum SAR in 1 g of peripheral brain tissues of the child models aged between 5 and 8 years is about two times higher than in adult models. This difference is not observed for the child models of children above 8 years old: the maximum SAR in 1 g of peripheral brain tissues is about the same as the one in adult models. Such differences can be explained by the lower thicknesses of pinna, skin and skull of the younger child models.”

De Salles, A. A., Bulla, G., Rodriguez, C. E. “Electromagnetic absorption in the head of adults and children due to mobile phone operation close to the head.” Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, vol. 25, no. 4, 2006, pp. 349–360.

• The authors simulated the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) produced by mobile phones in the head of adults and children using an algorithm based on the Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) method, using realistic models of the child and adult head.
• The frequencies used to feed the antennas were 1850 MHz and 850 MHz and the SAR results were compared with the available international recommendations.
• Researchers show that under similar conditions, the 1g-SAR calculated for children is higher than that for the adults. When using the 10-year old child model, SAR values higher than 60% than those for adults are obtained.

Gandhi, O.P., G. Lazzi, and C. M. Furse. “Electromagnetic absorption in the human head and neck for mobile telephones at 835 and 1900 MHz.” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 44, no. 10, 1996, pp. 1884-97.

• Authors used the finite-difference time-domain method and a new millimeter-resolution anatomically based model of the human to study electromagnetic energy coupled to the head due to mobile telephones at 835 and 1900 MHz.
• Assuming reduced dimensions characteristic of today’s mobile telephones, the authors have obtained SAR distributions for two different lengths of monopole antennas of lengths /spl lambda//4 and 3/spl lambda//8 for a model of the adult male and reduced-scale models of 10- and 5-year-old children and find that peak one-voxel and 1-g SARs are larger for the smaller models of children, particularly at 835 MHz. Homogeneous models(instead of anatomically realistic heterogeneous models) on the SAR distributions are shown to grossly overestimate both the peak 1-voxel and 1-g SARs.
• The authors showed that 5-year-old and 10-year-old children have higher psSARs (peak spatial specific absorption rate) than adults.